Kituku weather in February
In February, Kituku sees average daytime highs of 25°C and overnight lows near 21°C, with 306 mm of rain across 22.3 wet days and about 12.2 hours of daylight. It is the 5th-warmest and 2nd-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 25°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 5% of the time in February, and the air most often feels muggy.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 18 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Kituku's 10th-clearest and 10th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Kituku's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 25°
- 5th warmest
- Overnight low
- 21°
- 8th coldest
- Rainfall
- 306 mm
- 22.3 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 12 min
- 6:06 AM – 6:21 PM
- Cloud cover
- 86%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 5 km/h
- 10th windiest
- Solar energy
- 5.47 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 4.3
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 25°C through the month.
A typical February day in Kituku reaches about 25°C in the afternoon and slips back to 21°C overnight — a 4°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 23°C and 26°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 |
| Avg low (°C) | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 24 | 21 |
| 2 | 24 | 21 |
| 3 | 24 | 21 |
| 4 | 24 | 21 |
| 5 | 24 | 21 |
| 6 | 24 | 21 |
| 7 | 24 | 21 |
| 8 | 24 | 21 |
| 9 | 24 | 21 |
| 10 | 24 | 21 |
| 11 | 24 | 21 |
| 12 | 25 | 21 |
| 13 | 25 | 21 |
| 14 | 25 | 21 |
| 15 | 25 | 21 |
| 16 | 25 | 21 |
| 17 | 25 | 21 |
| 18 | 25 | 21 |
| 19 | 25 | 21 |
| 20 | 25 | 21 |
| 21 | 25 | 21 |
| 22 | 25 | 21 |
| 23 | 25 | 21 |
| 24 | 25 | 21 |
| 25 | 25 | 21 |
| 26 | 25 | 21 |
| 27 | 25 | 21 |
| 28 | 25 | 21 |
Kituku weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 5th-warmest and 2nd-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 24° / 21° | 365 | 26.7 | 12.4 | 4.1 |
| Feb | 25° / 21° | 306 | 22.3 | 12.2 | 4.3 |
| Mar | 25° / 21° | 269 | 23.5 | 12.1 | 4.6 |
| Apr | 24° / 21° | 117 | 16.7 | 11.8 | 5.7 |
| May | 24° / 21° | 20 | 4.7 | 11.7 | 8.2 |
| Jun | 24° / 20° | 1 | 0.3 | 11.6 | 9.2 |
| Jul | 24° / 20° | 0 | 0.1 | 11.6 | 9.3 |
| Aug | 25° / 21° | 2 | 0.6 | 11.8 | 9.0 |
| Sep | 27° / 22° | 8 | 1.9 | 12 | 8.1 |
| Oct | 27° / 22° | 55 | 12 | 12.2 | 6.2 |
| Nov | 25° / 21° | 179 | 21.6 | 12.3 | 4.7 |
| Dec | 24° / 21° | 295 | 26.4 | 12.4 | 4.2 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 5% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 4% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 91%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 6 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 |
| Cloudier (%) | 94 | 95 | 95 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 93 | 93 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 90 | 90 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | 94 |
| 2 | 5 | 95 |
| 3 | 5 | 95 |
| 4 | 6 | 94 |
| 5 | 6 | 94 |
| 6 | 6 | 94 |
| 7 | 7 | 93 |
| 8 | 7 | 93 |
| 9 | 8 | 92 |
| 10 | 8 | 92 |
| 11 | 8 | 92 |
| 12 | 8 | 92 |
| 13 | 9 | 91 |
| 14 | 9 | 91 |
| 15 | 9 | 91 |
| 16 | 9 | 91 |
| 17 | 10 | 90 |
| 18 | 10 | 90 |
| 19 | 10 | 90 |
| 20 | 9 | 91 |
| 21 | 10 | 90 |
| 22 | 10 | 90 |
| 23 | 11 | 89 |
| 24 | 11 | 89 |
| 25 | 11 | 89 |
| 26 | 11 | 89 |
| 27 | 10 | 90 |
| 28 | 10 | 90 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Kituku gets around 306 mm of rain over 22.3 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 80% and peaks near 85% on the wettest days. The odds ease toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 85 | 85 | 85 | 84 | 84 | 83 | 83 | 82 | 82 | 81 | 81 | 80 | 80 | 79 | 79 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 77 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 85 |
| 2 | 85 |
| 3 | 85 |
| 4 | 84 |
| 5 | 84 |
| 6 | 83 |
| 7 | 83 |
| 8 | 82 |
| 9 | 82 |
| 10 | 81 |
| 11 | 81 |
| 12 | 80 |
| 13 | 80 |
| 14 | 79 |
| 15 | 79 |
| 16 | 78 |
| 17 | 78 |
| 18 | 78 |
| 19 | 77 |
| 20 | 77 |
| 21 | 77 |
| 22 | 77 |
| 23 | 77 |
| 24 | 77 |
| 25 | 77 |
| 26 | 77 |
| 27 | 77 |
| 28 | 77 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels muggy — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the muggy band about 68% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 68% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humid (%) | 29 | 29 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 33 |
| Muggy (%) | 71 | 71 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 69 | 68 | 68 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 66 | 66 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 67 |
| Humid (%) | Muggy (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 29 | 71 |
| 2 | 29 | 71 |
| 3 | 30 | 70 |
| 4 | 30 | 70 |
| 5 | 30 | 70 |
| 6 | 31 | 69 |
| 7 | 32 | 68 |
| 8 | 32 | 68 |
| 9 | 33 | 67 |
| 10 | 33 | 67 |
| 11 | 33 | 67 |
| 12 | 34 | 66 |
| 13 | 34 | 66 |
| 14 | 34 | 66 |
| 15 | 34 | 66 |
| 16 | 33 | 67 |
| 17 | 33 | 67 |
| 18 | 33 | 67 |
| 19 | 33 | 67 |
| 20 | 32 | 68 |
| 21 | 32 | 68 |
| 22 | 32 | 68 |
| 23 | 32 | 68 |
| 24 | 32 | 68 |
| 25 | 32 | 68 |
| 26 | 32 | 68 |
| 27 | 32 | 68 |
| 28 | 33 | 67 |
Wind in February
Winds average 5 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 6 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 6 | calm |
| 9 | 6 | calm |
| 10 | 6 | calm |
| 11 | 6 | calm |
| 12 | 6 | calm |
| 13 | 6 | calm |
| 14 | 6 | calm |
| 15 | 6 | calm |
| 16 | 6 | calm |
| 17 | 6 | calm |
| 18 | 6 | calm |
| 19 | 6 | calm |
| 20 | 6 | calm |
| 21 | 6 | calm |
| 22 | 6 | calm |
| 23 | 6 | calm |
| 24 | 6 | calm |
| 25 | 6 | calm |
| 26 | 6 | calm |
| 27 | 6 | calm |
| 28 | 6 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 18 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days shrink by about 6 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:03 AM to 6:08 AM, and sunset from 6:23 PM to 6:17 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:08 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:17 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:23 |
| 2 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:23 |
| 3 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:23 |
| 4 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:22 |
| 5 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:22 |
| 6 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:22 |
| 7 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:22 |
| 8 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:22 |
| 9 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:22 |
| 10 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:22 |
| 11 | 12.3 | 6:06 | 6:22 |
| 12 | 12.3 | 6:06 | 6:22 |
| 13 | 12.3 | 6:06 | 6:22 |
| 14 | 12.3 | 6:06 | 6:21 |
| 15 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:21 |
| 16 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:21 |
| 17 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:21 |
| 18 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:21 |
| 19 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:20 |
| 20 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:20 |
| 21 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:20 |
| 22 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:19 |
| 23 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:19 |
| 24 | 12.2 | 6:07 | 6:19 |
| 25 | 12.2 | 6:08 | 6:19 |
| 26 | 12.2 | 6:08 | 6:18 |
| 27 | 12.2 | 6:08 | 6:18 |
| 28 | 12.2 | 6:08 | 6:17 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 5.47 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.14 kWh/m² to a high of 6.66 kWh/m² in September across the year — February's 5.47 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 7 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 8 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 9 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 10 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 11 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 12 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 13 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 14 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 15 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 16 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 17 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 18 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 19 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 20 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 21 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 22 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 23 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 24 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 25 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 26 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 27 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 28 | 5.5 | Bright |
Hazard calendar for Kituku
In February, Kituku sits inside its cyclone and monsoon season. The full year is below, with each hazard's peak months called out.
Kituku sits in the South Indian Ocean cyclone belt; the season peaks January–March.
Kituku's monsoon runs November–March, when most of the year's rain falls.
Is February a good time to visit Kituku?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Kituku for sightseeing.
What to pack for Kituku in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Kituku sees daytime highs around 25°C and nights near 21°C. Pack rain gear. Worth having: light clothes and sun protection. About 22 days see rain.
UV index in Kituku in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 16 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Kituku peaks around March 10 at about 16 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near August 12 at about 10 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 15 | 16 | 16 | 14 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 11 | 13 | 12 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 15 | Extreme |
| Feb | 16 | Extreme |
| Mar | 16 | Extreme |
| Apr | 14 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 10 | Very high |
| Jul | 10 | Very high |
| Aug | 9 | Very high |
| Sep | 11 | Extreme |
| Oct | 13 | Extreme |
| Nov | 12 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in Kituku in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Kituku is worst in September — around 61 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 9.3× the cleanest month (April, 7 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 12 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 9 | 25 | 41 | 60 | 61 | 45 | 13 | 8 |
| Level | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Moderate | Poor | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Poor | Moderate | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 12 | Good |
| Feb | 11 | Good |
| Mar | 9 | Good |
| Apr | 7 | Good |
| May | 9 | Good |
| Jun | 25 | Moderate |
| Jul | 41 | Poor |
| Aug | 60 | Unhealthy |
| Sep | 61 | Unhealthy |
| Oct | 45 | Poor |
| Nov | 13 | Moderate |
| Dec | 8 | Good |
Where is Kituku?
Kituku sits at 7.6°S, 30.2°E, 783 m above sea level, in Democratic Republic of the Congo. The nearest listed city is Kirando, 47 km away.
Topography around Kituku
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Kituku.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Kituku has large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 746 m around an average of 897 m above sea level; within 16 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,650 m; within 80 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,708 m.
The land around Kituku is covered by water (48%) and grassland (35%) within 3 km, water (47%), grassland (29%) and trees (20%) within 16 km, and water (36%), grassland (34%) and trees (25%) within 80 km.
Democratic Republic of the Congo travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 42% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $807
- 2025
- Happiness
- 3.8 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 12%
- of population, 2024
- Road deaths
- 34.9
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 400
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Kituku (-7.5816°, 30.206°, elevation 783 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. Tropical-cyclone seasons are the published climatological basin seasons (NOAA National Hurricane Center / regional warning centres). UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).