Abala weather in February
In February, Abala sees average daytime highs of 37°C and overnight lows near 20°C, with 0 mm of rain across 0 wet days and about 11.5 hours of daylight. It is the 4th-warmest and 10th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 36°C in the first days to 38°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 82% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Abala's 4th-clearest and 4th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Abala's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 37°
- 4th warmest
- Overnight low
- 20°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 0 mm
- 0 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 30 min
- 7:01 AM – 6:32 PM
- Cloud cover
- 19%
- 4th clearest
- Wind
- 10 km/h
- 4th windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.38 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 2.2
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 36°C in the first days to 38°C by the end.
A typical February day in Abala reaches about 37°C in the afternoon and slips back to 20°C overnight — a 17°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 34°C and 40°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 2°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 |
| Avg low (°C) | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 36 | 19 |
| 2 | 36 | 19 |
| 3 | 36 | 19 |
| 4 | 36 | 19 |
| 5 | 36 | 19 |
| 6 | 36 | 19 |
| 7 | 36 | 19 |
| 8 | 36 | 19 |
| 9 | 36 | 19 |
| 10 | 36 | 19 |
| 11 | 36 | 19 |
| 12 | 37 | 20 |
| 13 | 37 | 20 |
| 14 | 37 | 20 |
| 15 | 37 | 20 |
| 16 | 37 | 20 |
| 17 | 37 | 20 |
| 18 | 37 | 20 |
| 19 | 37 | 20 |
| 20 | 37 | 20 |
| 21 | 37 | 20 |
| 22 | 37 | 20 |
| 23 | 37 | 21 |
| 24 | 38 | 21 |
| 25 | 38 | 21 |
| 26 | 38 | 21 |
| 27 | 38 | 21 |
| 28 | 38 | 21 |
How February really feels in Abala
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 28 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
Abala weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 4th-warmest and 10th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 35° / 18° | 0 | 0 | 11.3 | 3.5 |
| Feb | 37° / 20° | 0 | 0 | 11.5 | 2.2 |
| Mar | 39° / 22° | 1 | 0.3 | 11.9 | 1.0 |
| Apr | 40° / 24° | 4 | 1.4 | 12.3 | 0.3 |
| May | 38° / 25° | 27 | 6.2 | 12.7 | 1.1 |
| Jun | 35° / 23° | 56 | 12 | 12.8 | 2.4 |
| Jul | 31° / 22° | 117 | 20.2 | 12.8 | 3.4 |
| Aug | 29° / 21° | 166 | 25.1 | 12.5 | 3.6 |
| Sep | 31° / 21° | 76 | 15 | 12.1 | 3.9 |
| Oct | 35° / 22° | 15 | 3.9 | 11.7 | 3.3 |
| Nov | 36° / 21° | 2 | 0.5 | 11.3 | 3.0 |
| Dec | 35° / 19° | 0 | 0 | 11.2 | 3.4 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 82% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 8% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 10%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 91 | 91 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 |
| Cloudier (%) | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 91 | 9 |
| 2 | 91 | 9 |
| 3 | 90 | 10 |
| 4 | 90 | 10 |
| 5 | 90 | 10 |
| 6 | 90 | 10 |
| 7 | 90 | 10 |
| 8 | 90 | 10 |
| 9 | 89 | 11 |
| 10 | 89 | 11 |
| 11 | 89 | 11 |
| 12 | 90 | 10 |
| 13 | 90 | 10 |
| 14 | 90 | 10 |
| 15 | 90 | 10 |
| 16 | 90 | 10 |
| 17 | 90 | 10 |
| 18 | 90 | 10 |
| 19 | 90 | 10 |
| 20 | 90 | 10 |
| 21 | 90 | 10 |
| 22 | 91 | 9 |
| 23 | 92 | 8 |
| 24 | 92 | 8 |
| 25 | 92 | 8 |
| 26 | 92 | 8 |
| 27 | 92 | 8 |
| 28 | 92 | 8 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Abala gets around 0 mm of rain over 0 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 0% and peaks near 0% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 0 |
| 3 | 0 |
| 4 | 0 |
| 5 | 0 |
| 6 | 0 |
| 7 | 0 |
| 8 | 0 |
| 9 | 0 |
| 10 | 0 |
| 11 | 0 |
| 12 | 0 |
| 13 | 0 |
| 14 | 0 |
| 15 | 0 |
| 16 | 0 |
| 17 | 0 |
| 18 | 0 |
| 19 | 0 |
| 20 | 0 |
| 21 | 0 |
| 22 | 0 |
| 23 | 0 |
| 24 | 0 |
| 25 | 0 |
| 26 | 0 |
| 27 | 0 |
| 28 | 0 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 99% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Comfortable (%) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 99 | 1 |
| 2 | 99 | 1 |
| 3 | 99 | 1 |
| 4 | 99 | 1 |
| 5 | 99 | 1 |
| 6 | 99 | 1 |
| 7 | 99 | 1 |
| 8 | 99 | 1 |
| 9 | 99 | 1 |
| 10 | 99 | 1 |
| 11 | 99 | 1 |
| 12 | 99 | 1 |
| 13 | 99 | 1 |
| 14 | 99 | 1 |
| 15 | 99 | 1 |
| 16 | 99 | 1 |
| 17 | 100 | 0 |
| 18 | 100 | 0 |
| 19 | 100 | 0 |
| 20 | 100 | 0 |
| 21 | 100 | 0 |
| 22 | 100 | 0 |
| 23 | 100 | 0 |
| 24 | 100 | 0 |
| 25 | 100 | 0 |
| 26 | 100 | 0 |
| 27 | 100 | 0 |
| 28 | 100 | 0 |
Wind in February
Winds average 10 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 9 km/h on the calmest days to 10 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 9 | calm |
| 2 | 9 | calm |
| 3 | 9 | calm |
| 4 | 9 | calm |
| 5 | 9 | calm |
| 6 | 9 | calm |
| 7 | 9 | calm |
| 8 | 9 | calm |
| 9 | 9 | calm |
| 10 | 9 | calm |
| 11 | 9 | calm |
| 12 | 9 | calm |
| 13 | 10 | calm |
| 14 | 10 | calm |
| 15 | 10 | calm |
| 16 | 10 | calm |
| 17 | 10 | calm |
| 18 | 10 | calm |
| 19 | 10 | calm |
| 20 | 10 | calm |
| 21 | 10 | calm |
| 22 | 10 | calm |
| 23 | 10 | calm |
| 24 | 10 | calm |
| 25 | 10 | calm |
| 26 | 10 | calm |
| 27 | 10 | calm |
| 28 | 10 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 18 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:04 AM to 6:55 AM, and sunset from 6:27 PM to 6:36 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:02 | 7:02 | 7:02 | 7:01 | 7:01 | 7:01 | 7:00 | 7:00 | 7:00 | 6:59 | 6:59 | 6:58 | 6:58 | 6:57 | 6:57 | 6:56 | 6:56 | 6:55 | 6:55 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:29 | 6:29 | 6:29 | 6:30 | 6:30 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:36 | 6:36 | 6:36 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.4 | 7:04 | 6:27 |
| 2 | 11.4 | 7:04 | 6:27 |
| 3 | 11.4 | 7:04 | 6:28 |
| 4 | 11.4 | 7:04 | 6:28 |
| 5 | 11.4 | 7:04 | 6:29 |
| 6 | 11.4 | 7:03 | 6:29 |
| 7 | 11.4 | 7:03 | 6:29 |
| 8 | 11.4 | 7:03 | 6:30 |
| 9 | 11.5 | 7:03 | 6:30 |
| 10 | 11.5 | 7:02 | 6:31 |
| 11 | 11.5 | 7:02 | 6:31 |
| 12 | 11.5 | 7:02 | 6:31 |
| 13 | 11.5 | 7:01 | 6:32 |
| 14 | 11.5 | 7:01 | 6:32 |
| 15 | 11.5 | 7:01 | 6:32 |
| 16 | 11.5 | 7:00 | 6:33 |
| 17 | 11.6 | 7:00 | 6:33 |
| 18 | 11.6 | 7:00 | 6:33 |
| 19 | 11.6 | 6:59 | 6:34 |
| 20 | 11.6 | 6:59 | 6:34 |
| 21 | 11.6 | 6:58 | 6:34 |
| 22 | 11.6 | 6:58 | 6:35 |
| 23 | 11.6 | 6:57 | 6:35 |
| 24 | 11.6 | 6:57 | 6:35 |
| 25 | 11.6 | 6:56 | 6:35 |
| 26 | 11.7 | 6:56 | 6:36 |
| 27 | 11.7 | 6:55 | 6:36 |
| 28 | 11.7 | 6:55 | 6:36 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.38 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.16 kWh/m² to a high of 7.14 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.38 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.7 | 6.7 |
| Level | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 2 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 3 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 5 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.7 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Abala
None of Abala's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Abala sees seasonal dust haze (June–August), heaviest in July.
Is February a good time to visit Abala?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Abala.
What to pack for Abala in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Abala sees daytime highs around 37°C and nights near 20°C. Pack light clothes and sun protection.
UV index in Abala in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 12 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Abala peaks around March 23 at about 13 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 12 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 10 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 8 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 9 | 8 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 10 | Extreme |
| Feb | 12 | Extreme |
| Mar | 13 | Extreme |
| Apr | 13 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 8 | Very high |
| Aug | 11 | Extreme |
| Sep | 11 | Extreme |
| Oct | 11 | Extreme |
| Nov | 9 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in Abala in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Abala is worst in April — around 25 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 1.8× the cleanest month (December, 14 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 17 | 20 | 24 | 25 | 18 | 21 | 22 | 20 | 19 | 16 | 14 | 14 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 17 | Moderate |
| Feb | 20 | Moderate |
| Mar | 24 | Moderate |
| Apr | 25 | Moderate |
| May | 18 | Moderate |
| Jun | 21 | Moderate |
| Jul | 22 | Moderate |
| Aug | 20 | Moderate |
| Sep | 19 | Moderate |
| Oct | 16 | Moderate |
| Nov | 14 | Moderate |
| Dec | 14 | Moderate |
Where is Abala?
Abala sits at 14.2°N, 37.0°E, 784 m above sea level, in Ethiopia. The nearest listed city is Adebaye, 26 km away.
Topography around Abala
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Abala.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Abala has significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 256 m around an average of 761 m above sea level; within 16 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 464 m; within 80 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,011 m.
The land around Abala is covered by shrubs (51%) and grassland (44%) within 3 km, grassland (57%) and shrubs (39%) within 16 km, and grassland (51%), shrubs (22%) and cropland (22%) within 80 km.
Ethiopia travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 3
- Reconsider Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E / F / L
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 37% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $933
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.0 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 14%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 8.5
- per 100k, 2012
- Road deaths
- 28.2
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 499
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Abala (14.2333°, 37°, elevation 784 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).