Lumamē weather in February
In February, Lumamē sees average daytime highs of 27°C and overnight lows near 13°C, with 14 mm of rain across 3.1 wet days and about 11.7 hours of daylight. It is the 3rd-warmest and 10th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 27°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 49% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 36 min at the start of February to 11 h 48 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Lumamē's 5th-clearest and 1st-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Lumamē's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 27°
- 3rd warmest
- Overnight low
- 13°
- 9th coldest
- Rainfall
- 14 mm
- 3.1 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 42 min
- 6:53 AM – 6:33 PM
- Cloud cover
- 41%
- 5th clearest
- Wind
- 6 km/h
- 1st windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.43 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 7.9
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 27°C through the month.
A typical February day in Lumamē reaches about 27°C in the afternoon and slips back to 13°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 24°C and 29°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 1°C warmer than January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 |
| Avg low (°C) | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 26 | 13 |
| 2 | 26 | 13 |
| 3 | 26 | 13 |
| 4 | 26 | 13 |
| 5 | 26 | 13 |
| 6 | 26 | 13 |
| 7 | 27 | 13 |
| 8 | 27 | 13 |
| 9 | 27 | 13 |
| 10 | 27 | 13 |
| 11 | 27 | 13 |
| 12 | 27 | 13 |
| 13 | 27 | 13 |
| 14 | 27 | 13 |
| 15 | 27 | 13 |
| 16 | 27 | 13 |
| 17 | 27 | 13 |
| 18 | 27 | 13 |
| 19 | 27 | 13 |
| 20 | 27 | 13 |
| 21 | 27 | 13 |
| 22 | 27 | 14 |
| 23 | 27 | 14 |
| 24 | 27 | 14 |
| 25 | 27 | 14 |
| 26 | 27 | 14 |
| 27 | 27 | 14 |
| 28 | 27 | 14 |
Lumamē weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 3rd-warmest and 10th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 25° / 12° | 8 | 1.9 | 11.5 | 8.4 |
| Feb | 27° / 13° | 14 | 3.1 | 11.7 | 7.9 |
| Mar | 27° / 14° | 53 | 8.9 | 11.9 | 6.8 |
| Apr | 27° / 15° | 99 | 12 | 12.2 | 6.3 |
| May | 26° / 14° | 150 | 13.7 | 12.5 | 6.1 |
| Jun | 23° / 13° | 302 | 26 | 12.6 | 4.4 |
| Jul | 20° / 13° | 484 | 30.9 | 12.5 | 3.3 |
| Aug | 20° / 13° | 452 | 30.9 | 12.3 | 3.3 |
| Sep | 21° / 12° | 224 | 24.9 | 12.1 | 4.4 |
| Oct | 23° / 12° | 42 | 6 | 11.8 | 7.8 |
| Nov | 24° / 12° | 16 | 2.9 | 11.5 | 8.6 |
| Dec | 24° / 11° | 6 | 1.3 | 11.4 | 8.9 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 49% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 26% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 24%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 79 | 79 | 79 | 78 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 |
| Cloudier (%) | 21 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 79 | 21 |
| 2 | 79 | 21 |
| 3 | 79 | 21 |
| 4 | 78 | 22 |
| 5 | 77 | 23 |
| 6 | 77 | 23 |
| 7 | 77 | 23 |
| 8 | 76 | 24 |
| 9 | 76 | 24 |
| 10 | 76 | 24 |
| 11 | 75 | 25 |
| 12 | 75 | 25 |
| 13 | 75 | 25 |
| 14 | 75 | 25 |
| 15 | 75 | 25 |
| 16 | 75 | 25 |
| 17 | 75 | 25 |
| 18 | 75 | 25 |
| 19 | 75 | 25 |
| 20 | 75 | 25 |
| 21 | 75 | 25 |
| 22 | 75 | 25 |
| 23 | 75 | 25 |
| 24 | 75 | 25 |
| 25 | 75 | 25 |
| 26 | 75 | 25 |
| 27 | 75 | 25 |
| 28 | 75 | 25 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Lumamē gets around 14 mm of rain over 3.1 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 11% and peaks near 17% on the wettest days. The odds climb toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 17 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 7 |
| 2 | 7 |
| 3 | 7 |
| 4 | 7 |
| 5 | 7 |
| 6 | 7 |
| 7 | 7 |
| 8 | 7 |
| 9 | 7 |
| 10 | 8 |
| 11 | 8 |
| 12 | 8 |
| 13 | 9 |
| 14 | 9 |
| 15 | 10 |
| 16 | 11 |
| 17 | 12 |
| 18 | 12 |
| 19 | 13 |
| 20 | 14 |
| 21 | 14 |
| 22 | 15 |
| 23 | 16 |
| 24 | 16 |
| 25 | 16 |
| 26 | 17 |
| 27 | 17 |
| 28 | 17 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 99% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 98 | 98 |
| Comfortable (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 100 | 0 |
| 2 | 100 | 0 |
| 3 | 100 | 0 |
| 4 | 100 | 0 |
| 5 | 100 | 0 |
| 6 | 100 | 0 |
| 7 | 100 | 0 |
| 8 | 100 | 0 |
| 9 | 100 | 0 |
| 10 | 100 | 0 |
| 11 | 99 | 1 |
| 12 | 99 | 1 |
| 13 | 99 | 1 |
| 14 | 99 | 1 |
| 15 | 99 | 1 |
| 16 | 99 | 1 |
| 17 | 99 | 1 |
| 18 | 99 | 1 |
| 19 | 99 | 1 |
| 20 | 99 | 1 |
| 21 | 99 | 1 |
| 22 | 99 | 1 |
| 23 | 99 | 1 |
| 24 | 99 | 1 |
| 25 | 99 | 1 |
| 26 | 99 | 1 |
| 27 | 98 | 2 |
| 28 | 98 | 2 |
Wind in February
Winds average 6 km/h in February, the windiest month of the year.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 6 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 6 | calm |
| 8 | 6 | calm |
| 9 | 6 | calm |
| 10 | 6 | calm |
| 11 | 6 | calm |
| 12 | 6 | calm |
| 13 | 6 | calm |
| 14 | 6 | calm |
| 15 | 6 | calm |
| 16 | 6 | calm |
| 17 | 6 | calm |
| 18 | 6 | calm |
| 19 | 6 | calm |
| 20 | 6 | calm |
| 21 | 6 | calm |
| 22 | 6 | calm |
| 23 | 6 | calm |
| 24 | 6 | calm |
| 25 | 6 | calm |
| 26 | 6 | calm |
| 27 | 6 | calm |
| 28 | 6 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 36 min at the start of February to 11 h 48 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 12 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:55 AM to 6:48 AM, and sunset from 6:28 PM to 6:35 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:55 | 6:54 | 6:54 | 6:54 | 6:54 | 6:54 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:52 | 6:52 | 6:52 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:48 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:28 | 6:29 | 6:29 | 6:30 | 6:30 | 6:30 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:28 |
| 2 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:29 |
| 3 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:29 |
| 4 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:30 |
| 5 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:30 |
| 6 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:30 |
| 7 | 11.6 | 6:55 | 6:31 |
| 8 | 11.6 | 6:54 | 6:31 |
| 9 | 11.6 | 6:54 | 6:31 |
| 10 | 11.6 | 6:54 | 6:31 |
| 11 | 11.6 | 6:54 | 6:32 |
| 12 | 11.6 | 6:54 | 6:32 |
| 13 | 11.6 | 6:53 | 6:32 |
| 14 | 11.7 | 6:53 | 6:33 |
| 15 | 11.7 | 6:53 | 6:33 |
| 16 | 11.7 | 6:53 | 6:33 |
| 17 | 11.7 | 6:52 | 6:33 |
| 18 | 11.7 | 6:52 | 6:33 |
| 19 | 11.7 | 6:52 | 6:34 |
| 20 | 11.7 | 6:51 | 6:34 |
| 21 | 11.7 | 6:51 | 6:34 |
| 22 | 11.7 | 6:51 | 6:34 |
| 23 | 11.7 | 6:50 | 6:34 |
| 24 | 11.7 | 6:50 | 6:34 |
| 25 | 11.8 | 6:50 | 6:35 |
| 26 | 11.8 | 6:49 | 6:35 |
| 27 | 11.8 | 6:49 | 6:35 |
| 28 | 11.8 | 6:48 | 6:35 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.43 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.59 kWh/m² to a high of 6.62 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.43 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 |
| Level | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 2 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 3 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 5 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.6 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Lumamē
None of Lumamē's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Lumamē's monsoon runs June–September, when most of the year's rain falls.
Lumamē sees seasonal dust haze (June), heaviest in June.
Is February a good time to visit Lumamē?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit Lumamē for general sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Lumamē in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Lumamē sees daytime highs around 27°C and nights near 13°C. Pack sun protection. Worth having: light clothes. About 3 days see rain.
UV index in Lumamē in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 14 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Lumamē peaks around March 21 at about 16 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 11 at about 11 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 12 | 14 | 16 | 15 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 11 | 11 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 12 | Extreme |
| Feb | 14 | Extreme |
| Mar | 16 | Extreme |
| Apr | 15 | Extreme |
| May | 13 | Extreme |
| Jun | 13 | Extreme |
| Jul | 13 | Extreme |
| Aug | 14 | Extreme |
| Sep | 13 | Extreme |
| Oct | 13 | Extreme |
| Nov | 11 | Extreme |
| Dec | 11 | Extreme |
Air quality in Lumamē in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Lumamē is worst in January — around 45 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), and holds fairly steady the rest of the year.
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 45 | 40 | 36 | 34 | 33 | 40 | 33 | 32 | 40 | 42 | 40 | 43 |
| Level | Poor | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 45 | Poor |
| Feb | 40 | Poor |
| Mar | 36 | Poor |
| Apr | 34 | Moderate |
| May | 33 | Moderate |
| Jun | 40 | Poor |
| Jul | 33 | Moderate |
| Aug | 32 | Moderate |
| Sep | 40 | Poor |
| Oct | 42 | Poor |
| Nov | 40 | Poor |
| Dec | 43 | Poor |
Where is Lumamē?
Lumamē sits at 10.3°N, 37.9°E, 2,452 m above sea level, in Ethiopia. The nearest listed city is Debre Mark’os, 25 km away.
Topography around Lumamē
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Lumamē.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Lumamē has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 207 m around an average of 2,458 m above sea level; within 16 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,201 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,258 m.
The land around Lumamē is covered by cropland (82%) within 3 km, cropland (91%) within 16 km, and cropland (63%) and shrubs (23%) within 80 km.
Ethiopia travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 3
- Reconsider Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E / F / L
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 37% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $933
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.0 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 14%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 8.5
- per 100k, 2012
- Road deaths
- 28.2
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 499
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Lumamē (10.25°, 37.9333°, elevation 2,452 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).