Koulamoutou weather in February
In February, Koulamoutou sees average daytime highs of 31°C and overnight lows near 22°C, with 142 mm of rain across 20.5 wet days and about 12 hours of daylight. It is the 2nd-warmest and 5th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 31°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 4% of the time in February, and the air most often feels oppressive.
Daylight stretches from about 12 hours at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Koulamoutou's 12th-clearest and 4th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Koulamoutou's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 31°
- 2nd warmest
- Overnight low
- 22°
- 9th coldest
- Rainfall
- 142 mm
- 20.5 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 hours
- 6:24 AM – 6:26 PM
- Cloud cover
- 81%
- 12th clearest
- Wind
- 5 km/h
- 4th windiest
- Solar energy
- 5.24 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 3.1
- out of 10
Koulamoutou is town in Gabon.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 31°C through the month.
A typical February day in Koulamoutou reaches about 31°C in the afternoon and slips back to 22°C overnight — a 9°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 29°C and 33°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Avg low (°C) | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 31 | 22 |
| 2 | 31 | 22 |
| 3 | 31 | 22 |
| 4 | 31 | 22 |
| 5 | 31 | 22 |
| 6 | 31 | 22 |
| 7 | 31 | 22 |
| 8 | 31 | 22 |
| 9 | 31 | 22 |
| 10 | 31 | 22 |
| 11 | 31 | 22 |
| 12 | 31 | 22 |
| 13 | 31 | 22 |
| 14 | 31 | 22 |
| 15 | 31 | 22 |
| 16 | 31 | 22 |
| 17 | 31 | 22 |
| 18 | 31 | 22 |
| 19 | 31 | 22 |
| 20 | 31 | 22 |
| 21 | 31 | 22 |
| 22 | 31 | 22 |
| 23 | 31 | 22 |
| 24 | 31 | 22 |
| 25 | 31 | 22 |
| 26 | 31 | 22 |
| 27 | 31 | 22 |
| 28 | 31 | 22 |
How February really feels in Koulamoutou
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 28 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
Koulamoutou weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 2nd-warmest and 5th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 30° / 22° | 132 | 21.8 | 12.1 | 3.4 |
| Feb | 31° / 22° | 142 | 20.5 | 12 | 3.1 |
| Mar | 31° / 22° | 159 | 23.8 | 12 | 2.9 |
| Apr | 31° / 22° | 141 | 23.9 | 12 | 3.0 |
| May | 30° / 22° | 120 | 22.8 | 11.9 | 3.5 |
| Jun | 28° / 21° | 44 | 12.4 | 11.9 | 5.4 |
| Jul | 28° / 21° | 28 | 8.1 | 11.9 | 6.4 |
| Aug | 28° / 21° | 38 | 10.3 | 12 | 5.6 |
| Sep | 29° / 22° | 91 | 20.1 | 12 | 3.9 |
| Oct | 29° / 22° | 186 | 27.1 | 12 | 3.2 |
| Nov | 29° / 21° | 180 | 26.4 | 12.1 | 3.1 |
| Dec | 30° / 22° | 164 | 25 | 12.1 | 3.3 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 4% of the time in February, the cloudiest month of the year.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 11% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 85%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 15 |
| Cloudier (%) | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 85 | 85 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 18 | 82 |
| 2 | 18 | 82 |
| 3 | 17 | 83 |
| 4 | 17 | 83 |
| 5 | 17 | 83 |
| 6 | 16 | 84 |
| 7 | 16 | 84 |
| 8 | 16 | 84 |
| 9 | 16 | 84 |
| 10 | 15 | 85 |
| 11 | 15 | 85 |
| 12 | 15 | 85 |
| 13 | 14 | 86 |
| 14 | 13 | 87 |
| 15 | 13 | 87 |
| 16 | 13 | 87 |
| 17 | 12 | 88 |
| 18 | 13 | 87 |
| 19 | 13 | 87 |
| 20 | 13 | 87 |
| 21 | 13 | 87 |
| 22 | 13 | 87 |
| 23 | 14 | 86 |
| 24 | 14 | 86 |
| 25 | 14 | 86 |
| 26 | 14 | 86 |
| 27 | 15 | 85 |
| 28 | 15 | 85 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Koulamoutou gets around 142 mm of rain over 20.5 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 73% and peaks near 76% on the wettest days. The odds climb toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 70 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 76 | 76 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 70 |
| 2 | 70 |
| 3 | 70 |
| 4 | 70 |
| 5 | 70 |
| 6 | 70 |
| 7 | 70 |
| 8 | 70 |
| 9 | 71 |
| 10 | 71 |
| 11 | 71 |
| 12 | 72 |
| 13 | 72 |
| 14 | 73 |
| 15 | 73 |
| 16 | 74 |
| 17 | 74 |
| 18 | 74 |
| 19 | 75 |
| 20 | 75 |
| 21 | 76 |
| 22 | 76 |
| 23 | 76 |
| 24 | 76 |
| 25 | 76 |
| 26 | 76 |
| 27 | 76 |
| 28 | 76 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels oppressive — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the oppressive band about 90% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 100% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muggy (%) | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Oppressive (%) | 86 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 |
| Muggy (%) | Oppressive (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 14 | 86 |
| 2 | 14 | 86 |
| 3 | 13 | 87 |
| 4 | 13 | 87 |
| 5 | 13 | 87 |
| 6 | 13 | 87 |
| 7 | 13 | 87 |
| 8 | 13 | 87 |
| 9 | 12 | 88 |
| 10 | 12 | 88 |
| 11 | 11 | 89 |
| 12 | 11 | 89 |
| 13 | 10 | 90 |
| 14 | 10 | 90 |
| 15 | 10 | 90 |
| 16 | 9 | 91 |
| 17 | 9 | 91 |
| 18 | 9 | 91 |
| 19 | 8 | 92 |
| 20 | 8 | 92 |
| 21 | 8 | 92 |
| 22 | 7 | 93 |
| 23 | 7 | 93 |
| 24 | 7 | 93 |
| 25 | 7 | 93 |
| 26 | 7 | 93 |
| 27 | 7 | 93 |
| 28 | 7 | 93 |
Wind in February
Winds average 5 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 5 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 5 | calm |
| 9 | 5 | calm |
| 10 | 5 | calm |
| 11 | 5 | calm |
| 12 | 5 | calm |
| 13 | 5 | calm |
| 14 | 5 | calm |
| 15 | 5 | calm |
| 16 | 5 | calm |
| 17 | 5 | calm |
| 18 | 5 | calm |
| 19 | 5 | calm |
| 20 | 5 | calm |
| 21 | 5 | calm |
| 22 | 5 | calm |
| 23 | 5 | calm |
| 24 | 5 | calm |
| 25 | 5 | calm |
| 26 | 5 | calm |
| 27 | 5 | calm |
| 28 | 5 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 hours at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 0 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:22 AM to 6:23 AM, and sunset from 6:25 PM to 6:24 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:24 | 6:24 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.0 | 6:22 | 6:25 |
| 2 | 12.0 | 6:22 | 6:25 |
| 3 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 4 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 5 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 6 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 7 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 8 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 9 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 10 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 11 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:26 |
| 12 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 13 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 14 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 15 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 16 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 17 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 18 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 19 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:26 |
| 20 | 12.0 | 6:24 | 6:25 |
| 21 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 22 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 23 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 24 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 25 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 26 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:25 |
| 27 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:24 |
| 28 | 12.0 | 6:23 | 6:24 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 5.24 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.32 kWh/m² to a high of 5.36 kWh/m² in March across the year — February's 5.24 kWh/m² sits near the top of that range.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 7 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 8 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 9 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 10 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 11 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 12 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 13 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 14 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 15 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 16 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 17 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 18 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 19 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 20 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 21 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 22 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 23 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 24 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 25 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 26 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 27 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 28 | 5.3 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit Koulamoutou?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Koulamoutou.
What to pack for Koulamoutou in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Koulamoutou sees daytime highs around 31°C and nights near 22°C. Pack light clothes and rain gear. Worth having: sun protection. About 21 days see rain.
UV index in Koulamoutou in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 12 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Koulamoutou peaks around March 17 at about 15 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near June 19 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 13 | 12 | 15 | 13 | 11 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 12 | 9 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 13 | Extreme |
| Feb | 12 | Extreme |
| Mar | 15 | Extreme |
| Apr | 13 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 8 | Very high |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 10 | Very high |
| Sep | 12 | Extreme |
| Oct | 14 | Extreme |
| Nov | 12 | Extreme |
| Dec | 9 | Very high |
Air quality in Koulamoutou in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Koulamoutou is worst in July — around 25 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 3.0× the cleanest month (October, 9 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 21 | 25 | 15 | 13 | 17 | 25 | 25 | 22 | 14 | 9 | 11 | 18 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Good | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 21 | Moderate |
| Feb | 25 | Moderate |
| Mar | 15 | Moderate |
| Apr | 13 | Moderate |
| May | 17 | Moderate |
| Jun | 25 | Moderate |
| Jul | 25 | Moderate |
| Aug | 22 | Moderate |
| Sep | 14 | Moderate |
| Oct | 9 | Good |
| Nov | 11 | Good |
| Dec | 18 | Moderate |
Where is Koulamoutou?
Koulamoutou sits at 1.1°S, 12.5°E, 282 m above sea level, in Gabon. The nearest listed city is Moanda, 95 km away.
Topography around Koulamoutou
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Koulamoutou.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Koulamoutou has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 109 m around an average of 296 m above sea level; within 16 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 421 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 813 m.
The land around Koulamoutou is covered by trees (88%) within 3 km, trees (99%) within 16 km, and trees (100%) within 80 km.
Gabon travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type C / E
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 37% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $8,263
- 2025
- Happiness
- 5.2 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Road deaths
- 23.9
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Koulamoutou (-1.1367°, 12.464°, elevation 282 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).