Lubuklinggau weather in February
In February, Lubuklinggau sees average daytime highs of 28°C and overnight lows near 21°C, with 281 mm of rain across 25.9 wet days and about 12.1 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 6th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 28°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 0% of the time in February, and the air most often feels muggy.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 h 06 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Lubuklinggau's 10th-clearest and 4th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Lubuklinggau's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 28°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 21°
- 6th coldest
- Rainfall
- 281 mm
- 25.9 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 06 min
- 6:20 AM – 6:26 PM
- Cloud cover
- 89%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 4 km/h
- 4th windiest
- Solar energy
- 4.77 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 3.5
- out of 10
Lubuklinggau is city in South Sumatra Province, Indonesia.
- Density
- 558/km²
- people per km²
- Founded
- 2001
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 28°C through the month.
A typical February day in Lubuklinggau reaches about 28°C in the afternoon and slips back to 21°C overnight — a 7°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 26°C and 29°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 27 | 27 | 27 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 |
| Avg low (°C) | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 27 | 21 |
| 2 | 27 | 21 |
| 3 | 27 | 21 |
| 4 | 28 | 21 |
| 5 | 28 | 21 |
| 6 | 28 | 21 |
| 7 | 28 | 21 |
| 8 | 28 | 21 |
| 9 | 28 | 21 |
| 10 | 28 | 21 |
| 11 | 28 | 21 |
| 12 | 28 | 21 |
| 13 | 28 | 21 |
| 14 | 28 | 21 |
| 15 | 28 | 21 |
| 16 | 28 | 21 |
| 17 | 28 | 21 |
| 18 | 28 | 21 |
| 19 | 28 | 21 |
| 20 | 28 | 21 |
| 21 | 28 | 21 |
| 22 | 28 | 21 |
| 23 | 28 | 21 |
| 24 | 28 | 21 |
| 25 | 28 | 21 |
| 26 | 28 | 21 |
| 27 | 28 | 21 |
| 28 | 28 | 21 |
Lubuklinggau weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 6th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 27° / 21° | 311 | 29 | 12.2 | 3.4 |
| Feb | 28° / 21° | 281 | 25.9 | 12.1 | 3.5 |
| Mar | 28° / 21° | 314 | 29 | 12 | 3.1 |
| Apr | 29° / 21° | 293 | 28.7 | 11.9 | 3.0 |
| May | 29° / 21° | 189 | 25.6 | 11.9 | 3.5 |
| Jun | 29° / 21° | 116 | 20.4 | 11.8 | 4.2 |
| Jul | 29° / 20° | 129 | 20.1 | 11.8 | 4.3 |
| Aug | 29° / 20° | 117 | 17.9 | 11.9 | 4.4 |
| Sep | 29° / 21° | 137 | 17.2 | 12 | 4.3 |
| Oct | 29° / 21° | 217 | 22.6 | 12.1 | 3.7 |
| Nov | 28° / 21° | 295 | 27.8 | 12.1 | 3.2 |
| Dec | 28° / 21° | 336 | 29.1 | 12.2 | 3.3 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 0% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 3% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 96%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Cloudier (%) | 97 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 95 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 94 | 94 | 94 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3 | 97 |
| 2 | 2 | 98 |
| 3 | 2 | 98 |
| 4 | 2 | 98 |
| 5 | 3 | 97 |
| 6 | 3 | 97 |
| 7 | 3 | 97 |
| 8 | 3 | 97 |
| 9 | 4 | 96 |
| 10 | 4 | 96 |
| 11 | 4 | 96 |
| 12 | 4 | 96 |
| 13 | 4 | 96 |
| 14 | 4 | 96 |
| 15 | 4 | 96 |
| 16 | 4 | 96 |
| 17 | 5 | 95 |
| 18 | 4 | 96 |
| 19 | 4 | 96 |
| 20 | 4 | 96 |
| 21 | 4 | 96 |
| 22 | 4 | 96 |
| 23 | 4 | 96 |
| 24 | 4 | 96 |
| 25 | 4 | 96 |
| 26 | 6 | 94 |
| 27 | 6 | 94 |
| 28 | 6 | 94 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Lubuklinggau gets around 281 mm of rain over 25.9 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 92% and peaks near 93% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 92 |
| 2 | 92 |
| 3 | 92 |
| 4 | 92 |
| 5 | 92 |
| 6 | 92 |
| 7 | 92 |
| 8 | 92 |
| 9 | 92 |
| 10 | 92 |
| 11 | 92 |
| 12 | 92 |
| 13 | 92 |
| 14 | 92 |
| 15 | 92 |
| 16 | 92 |
| 17 | 92 |
| 18 | 93 |
| 19 | 93 |
| 20 | 93 |
| 21 | 93 |
| 22 | 93 |
| 23 | 93 |
| 24 | 93 |
| 25 | 93 |
| 26 | 93 |
| 27 | 93 |
| 28 | 93 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels muggy — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the muggy band about 51% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 100% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muggy (%) | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 56 | 56 | 55 | 54 | 53 | 53 | 52 | 51 | 51 | 50 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 48 | 48 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 46 | 46 | 45 |
| Oppressive (%) | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 44 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 49 | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 52 | 52 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 54 | 54 | 55 |
| Muggy (%) | Oppressive (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 57 | 43 |
| 2 | 57 | 43 |
| 3 | 57 | 43 |
| 4 | 57 | 43 |
| 5 | 57 | 43 |
| 6 | 56 | 44 |
| 7 | 56 | 44 |
| 8 | 55 | 45 |
| 9 | 54 | 46 |
| 10 | 53 | 47 |
| 11 | 53 | 47 |
| 12 | 52 | 48 |
| 13 | 51 | 49 |
| 14 | 51 | 49 |
| 15 | 50 | 50 |
| 16 | 50 | 50 |
| 17 | 49 | 51 |
| 18 | 49 | 51 |
| 19 | 49 | 51 |
| 20 | 48 | 52 |
| 21 | 48 | 52 |
| 22 | 47 | 53 |
| 23 | 47 | 53 |
| 24 | 47 | 53 |
| 25 | 47 | 53 |
| 26 | 46 | 54 |
| 27 | 46 | 54 |
| 28 | 45 | 55 |
Wind in February
Winds average 4 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 4 km/h on the calmest days to 4 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4 | calm |
| 2 | 4 | calm |
| 3 | 4 | calm |
| 4 | 4 | calm |
| 5 | 4 | calm |
| 6 | 4 | calm |
| 7 | 4 | calm |
| 8 | 4 | calm |
| 9 | 4 | calm |
| 10 | 4 | calm |
| 11 | 4 | calm |
| 12 | 4 | calm |
| 13 | 4 | calm |
| 14 | 4 | calm |
| 15 | 4 | calm |
| 16 | 4 | calm |
| 17 | 4 | calm |
| 18 | 4 | calm |
| 19 | 4 | calm |
| 20 | 4 | calm |
| 21 | 4 | calm |
| 22 | 4 | calm |
| 23 | 4 | calm |
| 24 | 4 | calm |
| 25 | 4 | calm |
| 26 | 4 | calm |
| 27 | 4 | calm |
| 28 | 4 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 h 06 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 0 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:18 AM to 6:20 AM, and sunset from 6:26 PM to 6:24 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:24 | 6:24 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.1 | 6:18 | 6:26 |
| 2 | 12.1 | 6:18 | 6:26 |
| 3 | 12.1 | 6:18 | 6:26 |
| 4 | 12.1 | 6:18 | 6:27 |
| 5 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 6 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 7 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 8 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 9 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 10 | 12.1 | 6:19 | 6:27 |
| 11 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:27 |
| 12 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:27 |
| 13 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:27 |
| 14 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 15 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 16 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 17 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 18 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 19 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 20 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 21 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:26 |
| 22 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:25 |
| 23 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:25 |
| 24 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:25 |
| 25 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:25 |
| 26 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:25 |
| 27 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:24 |
| 28 | 12.1 | 6:20 | 6:24 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 4.77 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.39 kWh/m² to a high of 5.64 kWh/m² in September across the year — February's 4.77 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 4.5 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4.5 | Bright |
| 2 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 3 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 4 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 5 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 6 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 7 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 8 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 9 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 10 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 11 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 12 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 13 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 14 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 15 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 16 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 17 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 18 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 19 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 20 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.9 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit Lubuklinggau?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Lubuklinggau.
What to pack for Lubuklinggau in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Lubuklinggau sees daytime highs around 28°C and nights near 21°C. Pack light clothes and rain gear. Worth having: sun protection. About 26 days see rain.
UV index in Lubuklinggau in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 16 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Lubuklinggau peaks around February 20 at about 16 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near July 14 at about 10 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 14 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 12 | 13 | 15 | 11 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 14 | Extreme |
| Feb | 16 | Extreme |
| Mar | 15 | Extreme |
| Apr | 14 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 12 | Extreme |
| Sep | 13 | Extreme |
| Oct | 15 | Extreme |
| Nov | 11 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in Lubuklinggau in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Lubuklinggau is worst in October — around 47 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), about 2.5× the cleanest month (December, 19 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 19 | 21 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 23 | 25 | 30 | 44 | 47 | 25 | 19 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 19 | Moderate |
| Feb | 21 | Moderate |
| Mar | 22 | Moderate |
| Apr | 21 | Moderate |
| May | 21 | Moderate |
| Jun | 23 | Moderate |
| Jul | 25 | Moderate |
| Aug | 30 | Moderate |
| Sep | 44 | Poor |
| Oct | 47 | Poor |
| Nov | 25 | Moderate |
| Dec | 19 | Moderate |
Where is Lubuklinggau?
Lubuklinggau sits at 3.3°S, 102.9°E, 140 m above sea level, in Indonesia. The nearest listed city is Curup, 43 km away.
Topography around Lubuklinggau
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Lubuklinggau.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Lubuklinggau has significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 363 m around an average of 153 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 624 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,454 m.
The land around Lubuklinggau is covered by trees (66%) and artificial surfaces (31%) within 3 km, trees (92%) within 16 km, and trees (97%) within 80 km.
Indonesia travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type C / F
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 29% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $5,060
- 2025
- Happiness
- 5.6 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 30%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 0.3
- per 100k, 2022
- Road deaths
- 11.3
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 471
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Lubuklinggau (-3.2945°, 102.8614°, elevation 140 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).