Palangkaraya weather in February
In February, Palangkaraya sees average daytime highs of 31°C and overnight lows near 24°C, with 251 mm of rain across 24.6 wet days and about 12.1 hours of daylight. It is the 9th-warmest and 6th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 31°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February, and the air most often feels miserable.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Palangkaraya's 10th-clearest and 8th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Palangkaraya's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 31°
- 9th warmest
- Overnight low
- 24°
- 9th coldest
- Rainfall
- 251 mm
- 24.6 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 06 min
- 5:37 AM – 5:41 PM
- Cloud cover
- 92%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 4 km/h
- 8th windiest
- Solar energy
- 4.66 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 2.5
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 31°C through the month.
A typical February day in Palangkaraya reaches about 31°C in the afternoon and slips back to 24°C overnight — a 8°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 29°C and 33°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Avg low (°C) | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 31 | 24 |
| 2 | 31 | 24 |
| 3 | 31 | 24 |
| 4 | 31 | 24 |
| 5 | 31 | 24 |
| 6 | 31 | 24 |
| 7 | 31 | 24 |
| 8 | 31 | 24 |
| 9 | 31 | 24 |
| 10 | 31 | 24 |
| 11 | 31 | 24 |
| 12 | 31 | 24 |
| 13 | 31 | 24 |
| 14 | 31 | 24 |
| 15 | 31 | 24 |
| 16 | 31 | 24 |
| 17 | 31 | 24 |
| 18 | 31 | 24 |
| 19 | 31 | 24 |
| 20 | 31 | 24 |
| 21 | 31 | 24 |
| 22 | 31 | 24 |
| 23 | 31 | 24 |
| 24 | 31 | 24 |
| 25 | 31 | 24 |
| 26 | 31 | 24 |
| 27 | 31 | 24 |
| 28 | 31 | 24 |
How February really feels in Palangkaraya
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 28 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
Palangkaraya weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 9th-warmest and 6th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 31° / 24° | 282 | 28.1 | 12.1 | 2.4 |
| Feb | 31° / 24° | 251 | 24.6 | 12.1 | 2.5 |
| Mar | 31° / 24° | 298 | 28 | 12 | 2.4 |
| Apr | 31° / 24° | 293 | 28.3 | 12 | 2.3 |
| May | 32° / 24° | 189 | 24.9 | 11.9 | 2.7 |
| Jun | 31° / 24° | 137 | 19.1 | 11.9 | 3.2 |
| Jul | 32° / 23° | 99 | 15.7 | 11.9 | 3.6 |
| Aug | 33° / 23° | 87 | 12.5 | 11.9 | 3.4 |
| Sep | 33° / 23° | 113 | 14 | 12 | 3.0 |
| Oct | 33° / 24° | 228 | 21.5 | 12 | 2.5 |
| Nov | 32° / 24° | 318 | 28 | 12.1 | 2.3 |
| Dec | 31° / 24° | 297 | 28.9 | 12.1 | 2.3 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 3% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 97%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Cloudier (%) | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3 | 97 |
| 2 | 3 | 97 |
| 3 | 3 | 97 |
| 4 | 3 | 97 |
| 5 | 3 | 97 |
| 6 | 3 | 97 |
| 7 | 3 | 97 |
| 8 | 3 | 97 |
| 9 | 3 | 97 |
| 10 | 3 | 97 |
| 11 | 3 | 97 |
| 12 | 3 | 97 |
| 13 | 4 | 96 |
| 14 | 4 | 96 |
| 15 | 4 | 96 |
| 16 | 4 | 96 |
| 17 | 4 | 96 |
| 18 | 4 | 96 |
| 19 | 4 | 96 |
| 20 | 3 | 97 |
| 21 | 3 | 97 |
| 22 | 3 | 97 |
| 23 | 3 | 97 |
| 24 | 3 | 97 |
| 25 | 3 | 97 |
| 26 | 3 | 97 |
| 27 | 3 | 97 |
| 28 | 3 | 97 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Palangkaraya gets around 251 mm of rain over 24.6 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 88% and peaks near 89% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 88 | 88 | 88 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 86 |
| 2 | 86 |
| 3 | 86 |
| 4 | 86 |
| 5 | 86 |
| 6 | 86 |
| 7 | 87 |
| 8 | 87 |
| 9 | 87 |
| 10 | 87 |
| 11 | 87 |
| 12 | 87 |
| 13 | 88 |
| 14 | 88 |
| 15 | 88 |
| 16 | 88 |
| 17 | 88 |
| 18 | 89 |
| 19 | 89 |
| 20 | 89 |
| 21 | 89 |
| 22 | 89 |
| 23 | 89 |
| 24 | 89 |
| 25 | 89 |
| 26 | 88 |
| 27 | 88 |
| 28 | 88 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels miserable — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the miserable band about 70% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 100% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oppressive (%) | 34 | 34 | 34 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 32 | 32 | 31 | 31 | 30 | 30 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 |
| Miserable (%) | 66 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 71 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 71 | 71 | 71 | 71 | 71 |
| Oppressive (%) | Miserable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 34 | 66 |
| 2 | 34 | 66 |
| 3 | 34 | 66 |
| 4 | 33 | 67 |
| 5 | 33 | 67 |
| 6 | 33 | 67 |
| 7 | 32 | 68 |
| 8 | 32 | 68 |
| 9 | 31 | 69 |
| 10 | 31 | 69 |
| 11 | 30 | 70 |
| 12 | 30 | 70 |
| 13 | 29 | 71 |
| 14 | 29 | 71 |
| 15 | 29 | 71 |
| 16 | 28 | 72 |
| 17 | 28 | 72 |
| 18 | 28 | 72 |
| 19 | 28 | 72 |
| 20 | 28 | 72 |
| 21 | 28 | 72 |
| 22 | 28 | 72 |
| 23 | 28 | 72 |
| 24 | 29 | 71 |
| 25 | 29 | 71 |
| 26 | 29 | 71 |
| 27 | 29 | 71 |
| 28 | 29 | 71 |
Wind in February
Winds average 4 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 4 km/h on the calmest days to 5 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 5 | calm |
| 9 | 5 | calm |
| 10 | 5 | calm |
| 11 | 4 | calm |
| 12 | 4 | calm |
| 13 | 4 | calm |
| 14 | 4 | calm |
| 15 | 4 | calm |
| 16 | 4 | calm |
| 17 | 4 | calm |
| 18 | 4 | calm |
| 19 | 4 | calm |
| 20 | 4 | calm |
| 21 | 4 | calm |
| 22 | 4 | calm |
| 23 | 4 | calm |
| 24 | 4 | calm |
| 25 | 4 | calm |
| 26 | 4 | calm |
| 27 | 4 | calm |
| 28 | 4 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days shrink by about 6 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 5:35 AM to 5:36 AM, and sunset from 5:41 PM to 5:39 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 5:35 | 5:35 | 5:35 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:37 | 5:36 | 5:36 |
| Sunset (PM) | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:41 | 5:40 | 5:40 | 5:40 | 5:40 | 5:40 | 5:40 | 5:39 | 5:39 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.1 | 5:35 | 5:41 |
| 2 | 12.1 | 5:35 | 5:41 |
| 3 | 12.1 | 5:35 | 5:41 |
| 4 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 5 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 6 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 7 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 8 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 9 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 10 | 12.1 | 5:36 | 5:41 |
| 11 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 12 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 13 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 14 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 15 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 16 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 17 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 18 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 19 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 20 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:41 |
| 21 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 22 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 23 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 24 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 25 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 26 | 12.1 | 5:37 | 5:40 |
| 27 | 12.0 | 5:36 | 5:39 |
| 28 | 12.0 | 5:36 | 5:39 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 4.66 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.28 kWh/m² to a high of 5.37 kWh/m² in September across the year — February's 4.66 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 2 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 3 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 4 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 5 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 6 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 7 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 8 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 9 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 10 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 11 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 12 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 13 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 14 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 15 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 16 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 17 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 18 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 19 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 20 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.7 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit Palangkaraya?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Palangkaraya.
What to pack for Palangkaraya in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Palangkaraya sees daytime highs around 31°C and nights near 24°C. Pack light clothes and rain gear. Worth having: sun protection. About 25 days see rain.
UV index in Palangkaraya in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 15 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Palangkaraya peaks around February 19 at about 15 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near July 11 at about 10 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 14 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 14 | Extreme |
| Feb | 15 | Extreme |
| Mar | 15 | Extreme |
| Apr | 14 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 10 | Extreme |
| Aug | 12 | Extreme |
| Sep | 13 | Extreme |
| Oct | 13 | Extreme |
| Nov | 13 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in Palangkaraya in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Palangkaraya is worst in September — around 136 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 14.0× the cleanest month (January, 10 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 10 | 11 | 13 | 11 | 13 | 13 | 22 | 59 | 136 | 134 | 35 | 11 |
| Level | Good | Good | Moderate | Good | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Poor | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 10 | Good |
| Feb | 11 | Good |
| Mar | 13 | Moderate |
| Apr | 11 | Good |
| May | 13 | Moderate |
| Jun | 13 | Moderate |
| Jul | 22 | Moderate |
| Aug | 59 | Unhealthy |
| Sep | 136 | Unhealthy |
| Oct | 134 | Unhealthy |
| Nov | 35 | Poor |
| Dec | 11 | Good |
Where is Palangkaraya?
Palangkaraya sits at 2.2°S, 113.9°E, 16 m above sea level, in Indonesia. The nearest listed city is Kualakapuas, 103 km away.
Topography around Palangkaraya
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Palangkaraya.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Palangkaraya has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 18 m around an average of 11 m above sea level; within 16 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 43 m; within 80 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 129 m.
The land around Palangkaraya is covered by artificial surfaces (55%) and trees (26%) within 3 km, trees (53%) and grassland (23%) within 16 km, and trees (84%) within 80 km.
Indonesia travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type C / F
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 29% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $5,060
- 2025
- Happiness
- 5.6 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 30%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 0.3
- per 100k, 2022
- Road deaths
- 11.3
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 471
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Palangkaraya (-2.2083°, 113.9167°, elevation 16 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).