Upper Gilgil weather in February
In February, Upper Gilgil sees average daytime highs of 25°C and overnight lows near 10°C, with 46 mm of rain across 4.8 wet days and about 12 hours of daylight. It is the 2nd-warmest and 12th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 25°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 21% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 12 hours at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Upper Gilgil's 1st-clearest and 1st-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Upper Gilgil's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 25°
- 2nd warmest
- Overnight low
- 10°
- 1st coldest
- Rainfall
- 46 mm
- 4.8 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 hours
- 6:49 AM – 6:50 PM
- Cloud cover
- 59%
- 1st clearest
- Wind
- 7 km/h
- 1st windiest
- Solar energy
- 7.06 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 7.5
- out of 10
Upper Gilgil is A town in Nakuru County, Kenya..
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 25°C through the month.
A typical February day in Upper Gilgil reaches about 25°C in the afternoon and slips back to 10°C overnight — a 15°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 22°C and 27°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 |
| Avg low (°C) | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 24 | 10 |
| 2 | 24 | 10 |
| 3 | 24 | 10 |
| 4 | 24 | 10 |
| 5 | 24 | 10 |
| 6 | 25 | 10 |
| 7 | 25 | 10 |
| 8 | 25 | 10 |
| 9 | 25 | 10 |
| 10 | 25 | 10 |
| 11 | 25 | 10 |
| 12 | 25 | 10 |
| 13 | 25 | 10 |
| 14 | 25 | 10 |
| 15 | 25 | 10 |
| 16 | 25 | 10 |
| 17 | 25 | 10 |
| 18 | 25 | 10 |
| 19 | 25 | 10 |
| 20 | 25 | 10 |
| 21 | 25 | 10 |
| 22 | 25 | 10 |
| 23 | 25 | 10 |
| 24 | 25 | 10 |
| 25 | 25 | 10 |
| 26 | 25 | 10 |
| 27 | 25 | 10 |
| 28 | 25 | 10 |
Upper Gilgil weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 2nd-warmest and 12th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 23° / 10° | 66 | 6.8 | 12 | 7.3 |
| Feb | 25° / 10° | 46 | 4.8 | 12 | 7.5 |
| Mar | 25° / 11° | 145 | 9.2 | 12 | 6.9 |
| Apr | 23° / 12° | 330 | 18.3 | 12 | 5.3 |
| May | 22° / 12° | 273 | 16.9 | 12 | 5.5 |
| Jun | 21° / 12° | 132 | 16.4 | 12 | 5.3 |
| Jul | 20° / 11° | 129 | 19.6 | 12 | 4.7 |
| Aug | 20° / 11° | 155 | 20.3 | 12 | 4.7 |
| Sep | 21° / 10° | 153 | 14.1 | 12 | 5.8 |
| Oct | 22° / 11° | 313 | 17.1 | 12 | 5.3 |
| Nov | 21° / 11° | 315 | 20.3 | 12 | 4.8 |
| Dec | 22° / 11° | 129 | 11.3 | 12 | 6.3 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 21% of the time in February, the clearest month of the year.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 30% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 49%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 |
| Cloudier (%) | 50 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 48 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 47 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 50 | 50 |
| 2 | 50 | 50 |
| 3 | 51 | 49 |
| 4 | 51 | 49 |
| 5 | 51 | 49 |
| 6 | 50 | 50 |
| 7 | 50 | 50 |
| 8 | 50 | 50 |
| 9 | 49 | 51 |
| 10 | 49 | 51 |
| 11 | 49 | 51 |
| 12 | 49 | 51 |
| 13 | 49 | 51 |
| 14 | 49 | 51 |
| 15 | 50 | 50 |
| 16 | 50 | 50 |
| 17 | 50 | 50 |
| 18 | 50 | 50 |
| 19 | 51 | 49 |
| 20 | 51 | 49 |
| 21 | 52 | 48 |
| 22 | 53 | 47 |
| 23 | 53 | 47 |
| 24 | 53 | 47 |
| 25 | 53 | 47 |
| 26 | 53 | 47 |
| 27 | 53 | 47 |
| 28 | 53 | 47 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Upper Gilgil gets around 46 mm of rain over 4.8 wet days in February, the driest month. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 19% and peaks near 20% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 17 |
| 2 | 17 |
| 3 | 17 |
| 4 | 17 |
| 5 | 18 |
| 6 | 18 |
| 7 | 18 |
| 8 | 18 |
| 9 | 19 |
| 10 | 19 |
| 11 | 19 |
| 12 | 20 |
| 13 | 20 |
| 14 | 20 |
| 15 | 20 |
| 16 | 19 |
| 17 | 19 |
| 18 | 19 |
| 19 | 19 |
| 20 | 18 |
| 21 | 18 |
| 22 | 18 |
| 23 | 18 |
| 24 | 18 |
| 25 | 18 |
| 26 | 19 |
| 27 | 19 |
| 28 | 19 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 96% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 |
| Comfortable (%) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 95 | 5 |
| 2 | 95 | 5 |
| 3 | 95 | 5 |
| 4 | 95 | 5 |
| 5 | 95 | 5 |
| 6 | 96 | 4 |
| 7 | 96 | 4 |
| 8 | 96 | 4 |
| 9 | 96 | 4 |
| 10 | 96 | 4 |
| 11 | 96 | 4 |
| 12 | 96 | 4 |
| 13 | 97 | 3 |
| 14 | 97 | 3 |
| 15 | 97 | 3 |
| 16 | 97 | 3 |
| 17 | 97 | 3 |
| 18 | 97 | 3 |
| 19 | 97 | 3 |
| 20 | 96 | 4 |
| 21 | 96 | 4 |
| 22 | 96 | 4 |
| 23 | 96 | 4 |
| 24 | 95 | 5 |
| 25 | 95 | 5 |
| 26 | 95 | 5 |
| 27 | 95 | 5 |
| 28 | 95 | 5 |
Wind in February
Winds average 7 km/h in February, the windiest month of the year.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 7 km/h on the calmest days to 7 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 7 | calm |
| 2 | 7 | calm |
| 3 | 7 | calm |
| 4 | 7 | calm |
| 5 | 7 | calm |
| 6 | 7 | calm |
| 7 | 7 | calm |
| 8 | 7 | calm |
| 9 | 7 | calm |
| 10 | 7 | calm |
| 11 | 7 | calm |
| 12 | 7 | calm |
| 13 | 7 | calm |
| 14 | 7 | calm |
| 15 | 7 | calm |
| 16 | 7 | calm |
| 17 | 7 | calm |
| 18 | 7 | calm |
| 19 | 7 | calm |
| 20 | 7 | calm |
| 21 | 7 | calm |
| 22 | 7 | calm |
| 23 | 7 | calm |
| 24 | 7 | calm |
| 25 | 7 | calm |
| 26 | 7 | calm |
| 27 | 7 | calm |
| 28 | 7 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 hours at the start of February to 12 hours by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 0 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:48 AM to 6:48 AM, and sunset from 6:49 PM to 6:48 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:48 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:49 |
| 2 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:49 |
| 3 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:49 |
| 4 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 5 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 6 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 7 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 8 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 9 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 10 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 11 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 12 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 13 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 14 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 15 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 16 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 17 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 18 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 19 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:50 |
| 20 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 21 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 22 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 23 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 24 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 25 | 12.0 | 6:49 | 6:49 |
| 26 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:49 |
| 27 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:49 |
| 28 | 12.0 | 6:48 | 6:48 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 7.06 kWh/m² — the sunniest month for solar.
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.92 kWh/m² to a high of 7.06 kWh/m² in February across the year — February's 7.06 kWh/m² sits near the top of that range.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.9 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 |
| Level | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.9 | Intense |
| 2 | 6.9 | Intense |
| 3 | 6.9 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.9 | Intense |
| 5 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 6 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 7 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 8 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 9 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 10 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 11 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 12 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 13 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 14 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 15 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 16 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 17 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 18 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 19 | 7.0 | Intense |
| 20 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 21 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 22 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 23 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 24 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 25 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 26 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 27 | 7.1 | Intense |
| 28 | 7.1 | Intense |
Is February a good time to visit Upper Gilgil?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit Upper Gilgil for general sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Upper Gilgil in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Upper Gilgil sees daytime highs around 25°C and nights near 10°C. Pack sun protection. Worth having: light clothes. About 5 days see rain.
UV index in Upper Gilgil in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 16 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Upper Gilgil peaks around March 16 at about 17 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near June 19 at about 11 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 16 | 16 | 17 | 16 | 13 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 14 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 16 | Extreme |
| Feb | 16 | Extreme |
| Mar | 17 | Extreme |
| Apr | 16 | Extreme |
| May | 13 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 12 | Extreme |
| Aug | 13 | Extreme |
| Sep | 14 | Extreme |
| Oct | 15 | Extreme |
| Nov | 14 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in Upper Gilgil in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Upper Gilgil is worst in June — around 38 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), and holds fairly steady the rest of the year.
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 27 | 29 | 32 | 28 | 31 | 38 | 37 | 32 | 30 | 28 | 28 | 27 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 27 | Moderate |
| Feb | 29 | Moderate |
| Mar | 32 | Moderate |
| Apr | 28 | Moderate |
| May | 31 | Moderate |
| Jun | 38 | Poor |
| Jul | 37 | Poor |
| Aug | 32 | Moderate |
| Sep | 30 | Moderate |
| Oct | 28 | Moderate |
| Nov | 28 | Moderate |
| Dec | 27 | Moderate |
Where is Upper Gilgil?
Upper Gilgil sits at 0.2°S, 36.3°E, 2,710 m above sea level, in Kenya. The nearest listed city is Ol Kalou, 14 km away.
Topography around Upper Gilgil
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Upper Gilgil.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Upper Gilgil has significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 295 m around an average of 2,664 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 985 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,006 m.
The land around Upper Gilgil is covered by trees (36%), shrubs (22%) and cropland (22%) within 3 km, cropland (42%) and trees (29%) within 16 km, and grassland (30%), trees (25%) and cropland (25%) within 80 km.
Kenya travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type G
- 240 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 34% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $2,363
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.7 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Homicide rate
- 4.9
- per 100k, 2022
- Road deaths
- 28.3
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Lower middle
- World Bank
- English
- High
- EF EPI 593
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Upper Gilgil (-0.2121°, 36.2725°, elevation 2,710 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).