Douentza weather in February
In February, Douentza sees average daytime highs of 32°C and overnight lows near 18°C, with 0 mm of rain across 0 wet days and about 11.5 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 11th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 31°C in the first days to 34°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 68% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Douentza's 1st-clearest and 1st-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Douentza's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 32°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 18°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 0 mm
- 0 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 30 min
- 6:41 AM – 6:11 PM
- Cloud cover
- 28%
- 1st clearest
- Wind
- 12 km/h
- 1st windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.16 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 5.2
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 31°C in the first days to 34°C by the end.
A typical February day in Douentza reaches about 32°C in the afternoon and slips back to 18°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 28°C and 36°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 3°C warmer than January and about 4°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 30 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 |
| Avg low (°C) | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 30 | 17 |
| 2 | 31 | 17 |
| 3 | 31 | 17 |
| 4 | 31 | 17 |
| 5 | 31 | 17 |
| 6 | 31 | 17 |
| 7 | 31 | 17 |
| 8 | 31 | 17 |
| 9 | 31 | 17 |
| 10 | 32 | 18 |
| 11 | 32 | 18 |
| 12 | 32 | 18 |
| 13 | 32 | 18 |
| 14 | 32 | 18 |
| 15 | 32 | 18 |
| 16 | 32 | 18 |
| 17 | 32 | 18 |
| 18 | 33 | 18 |
| 19 | 33 | 18 |
| 20 | 33 | 19 |
| 21 | 33 | 19 |
| 22 | 33 | 19 |
| 23 | 33 | 19 |
| 24 | 33 | 19 |
| 25 | 34 | 19 |
| 26 | 34 | 19 |
| 27 | 34 | 19 |
| 28 | 34 | 19 |
How February really feels in Douentza
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 15 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
Douentza weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 11th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 29° / 15° | 1 | 0.1 | 11.2 | 7.2 |
| Feb | 32° / 18° | 0 | 0 | 11.5 | 5.2 |
| Mar | 36° / 22° | 0 | 0.1 | 11.9 | 2.6 |
| Apr | 39° / 26° | 2 | 1 | 12.3 | 0.5 |
| May | 40° / 28° | 6 | 2.4 | 12.7 | 0.0 |
| Jun | 38° / 28° | 21 | 7.7 | 12.9 | 0.9 |
| Jul | 35° / 26° | 93 | 15.5 | 12.8 | 2.2 |
| Aug | 33° / 24° | 131 | 17.2 | 12.5 | 3.1 |
| Sep | 34° / 25° | 52 | 10.4 | 12.1 | 2.8 |
| Oct | 36° / 24° | 10 | 2.5 | 11.7 | 2.2 |
| Nov | 34° / 20° | 1 | 0.1 | 11.3 | 3.8 |
| Dec | 30° / 16° | 0 | 0 | 11.1 | 6.3 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 68% of the time in February, the clearest month of the year.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 12% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 21%. Skies tend to open up as the month goes on.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 79 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 79 | 79 | 79 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 81 | 81 |
| Cloudier (%) | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 79 | 21 |
| 2 | 79 | 21 |
| 3 | 80 | 20 |
| 4 | 80 | 20 |
| 5 | 79 | 21 |
| 6 | 79 | 21 |
| 7 | 79 | 21 |
| 8 | 78 | 22 |
| 9 | 78 | 22 |
| 10 | 78 | 22 |
| 11 | 77 | 23 |
| 12 | 77 | 23 |
| 13 | 78 | 22 |
| 14 | 78 | 22 |
| 15 | 78 | 22 |
| 16 | 78 | 22 |
| 17 | 78 | 22 |
| 18 | 79 | 21 |
| 19 | 80 | 20 |
| 20 | 80 | 20 |
| 21 | 80 | 20 |
| 22 | 81 | 19 |
| 23 | 81 | 19 |
| 24 | 80 | 20 |
| 25 | 81 | 19 |
| 26 | 81 | 19 |
| 27 | 81 | 19 |
| 28 | 81 | 19 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Douentza gets around 0 mm of rain over 0 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 0% and peaks near 0% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 0 |
| 3 | 0 |
| 4 | 0 |
| 5 | 0 |
| 6 | 0 |
| 7 | 0 |
| 8 | 0 |
| 9 | 0 |
| 10 | 0 |
| 11 | 0 |
| 12 | 0 |
| 13 | 0 |
| 14 | 0 |
| 15 | 0 |
| 16 | 0 |
| 17 | 0 |
| 18 | 0 |
| 19 | 0 |
| 20 | 0 |
| 21 | 0 |
| 22 | 0 |
| 23 | 0 |
| 24 | 0 |
| 25 | 0 |
| 26 | 0 |
| 27 | 0 |
| 28 | 0 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 98 | 98 | 98 |
| Comfortable (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 100 | 0 |
| 2 | 100 | 0 |
| 3 | 100 | 0 |
| 4 | 100 | 0 |
| 5 | 100 | 0 |
| 6 | 100 | 0 |
| 7 | 100 | 0 |
| 8 | 100 | 0 |
| 9 | 100 | 0 |
| 10 | 100 | 0 |
| 11 | 100 | 0 |
| 12 | 100 | 0 |
| 13 | 100 | 0 |
| 14 | 100 | 0 |
| 15 | 100 | 0 |
| 16 | 100 | 0 |
| 17 | 100 | 0 |
| 18 | 100 | 0 |
| 19 | 100 | 0 |
| 20 | 99 | 1 |
| 21 | 99 | 1 |
| 22 | 99 | 1 |
| 23 | 99 | 1 |
| 24 | 99 | 1 |
| 25 | 99 | 1 |
| 26 | 98 | 2 |
| 27 | 98 | 2 |
| 28 | 98 | 2 |
Wind in February
Winds average 12 km/h in February, the windiest month of the year.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 12 km/h on the calmest days to 12 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12 | calm |
| 2 | 12 | calm |
| 3 | 12 | calm |
| 4 | 12 | calm |
| 5 | 12 | calm |
| 6 | 12 | calm |
| 7 | 12 | calm |
| 8 | 12 | calm |
| 9 | 12 | calm |
| 10 | 12 | calm |
| 11 | 12 | calm |
| 12 | 12 | calm |
| 13 | 12 | calm |
| 14 | 12 | calm |
| 15 | 12 | calm |
| 16 | 12 | calm |
| 17 | 12 | calm |
| 18 | 12 | calm |
| 19 | 12 | calm |
| 20 | 12 | calm |
| 21 | 12 | calm |
| 22 | 12 | calm |
| 23 | 12 | calm |
| 24 | 12 | calm |
| 25 | 12 | calm |
| 26 | 12 | calm |
| 27 | 12 | calm |
| 28 | 12 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 24 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:45 AM to 6:35 AM, and sunset from 6:06 PM to 6:15 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.3 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 11.7 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:44 | 6:44 | 6:44 | 6:44 | 6:43 | 6:43 | 6:43 | 6:42 | 6:42 | 6:42 | 6:41 | 6:41 | 6:41 | 6:40 | 6:40 | 6:39 | 6:39 | 6:38 | 6:38 | 6:37 | 6:37 | 6:36 | 6:36 | 6:35 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:09 | 6:09 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:13 | 6:13 | 6:13 | 6:14 | 6:14 | 6:14 | 6:15 | 6:15 | 6:15 | 6:15 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.3 | 6:45 | 6:06 |
| 2 | 11.4 | 6:45 | 6:06 |
| 3 | 11.4 | 6:45 | 6:06 |
| 4 | 11.4 | 6:45 | 6:07 |
| 5 | 11.4 | 6:44 | 6:07 |
| 6 | 11.4 | 6:44 | 6:08 |
| 7 | 11.4 | 6:44 | 6:08 |
| 8 | 11.4 | 6:44 | 6:09 |
| 9 | 11.4 | 6:43 | 6:09 |
| 10 | 11.4 | 6:43 | 6:10 |
| 11 | 11.5 | 6:43 | 6:10 |
| 12 | 11.5 | 6:42 | 6:10 |
| 13 | 11.5 | 6:42 | 6:11 |
| 14 | 11.5 | 6:42 | 6:11 |
| 15 | 11.5 | 6:41 | 6:11 |
| 16 | 11.5 | 6:41 | 6:12 |
| 17 | 11.5 | 6:41 | 6:12 |
| 18 | 11.5 | 6:40 | 6:12 |
| 19 | 11.6 | 6:40 | 6:13 |
| 20 | 11.6 | 6:39 | 6:13 |
| 21 | 11.6 | 6:39 | 6:13 |
| 22 | 11.6 | 6:38 | 6:14 |
| 23 | 11.6 | 6:38 | 6:14 |
| 24 | 11.6 | 6:37 | 6:14 |
| 25 | 11.6 | 6:37 | 6:15 |
| 26 | 11.6 | 6:36 | 6:15 |
| 27 | 11.7 | 6:36 | 6:15 |
| 28 | 11.7 | 6:35 | 6:15 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.16 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.39 kWh/m² to a high of 7.09 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.16 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 7 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 8 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 9 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.5 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Douentza
In February, Douentza sits inside its dust season. The full year is below, with each hazard's peak months called out.
Douentza sees dust haze year-round, heaviest in May.
Is February a good time to visit Douentza?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Douentza for sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Douentza in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Douentza sees daytime highs around 32°C and nights near 18°C. Pack light clothes and sun protection.
UV index in Douentza in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 11 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Douentza peaks around August 20 at about 13 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 17 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 9 | 11 | 13 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 8 |
| Level | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 9 | Very high |
| Feb | 11 | Extreme |
| Mar | 13 | Extreme |
| Apr | 11 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 10 | Extreme |
| Aug | 13 | Extreme |
| Sep | 12 | Extreme |
| Oct | 11 | Extreme |
| Nov | 9 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in Douentza in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Douentza is worst in February — around 72 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 4.5× the cleanest month (August, 16 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 67 | 72 | 70 | 57 | 51 | 44 | 27 | 16 | 19 | 33 | 39 | 56 |
| Level | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Unhealthy |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 67 | Unhealthy |
| Feb | 72 | Unhealthy |
| Mar | 70 | Unhealthy |
| Apr | 57 | Unhealthy |
| May | 51 | Poor |
| Jun | 44 | Poor |
| Jul | 27 | Moderate |
| Aug | 16 | Moderate |
| Sep | 19 | Moderate |
| Oct | 33 | Moderate |
| Nov | 39 | Poor |
| Dec | 56 | Unhealthy |
Where is Douentza?
Douentza sits at 15.0°N, 3.0°W, 307 m above sea level, in Mali. The nearest listed city is Bandiagara, 102 km away.
Topography around Douentza
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Douentza.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Douentza has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 161 m around an average of 298 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 694 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 795 m.
The land around Douentza is covered by grassland (40%) and cropland (30%) within 3 km, grassland (62%) within 16 km, and grassland (70%) within 80 km.
Mali travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 34% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $1,193
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.6 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Road deaths
- 22.7
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 408
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Douentza (15.0061°, -2.9517°, elevation 307 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).