Ben Ahmed weather in February
In February, Ben Ahmed sees average daytime highs of 18°C and overnight lows near 8°C, with 41 mm of rain across 6.4 wet days and about 10.8 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 5th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 18°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 49% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 10 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 12 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Ben Ahmed's 6th-clearest and 7th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Ben Ahmed's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 18°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 8°
- 2nd coldest
- Rainfall
- 41 mm
- 6.4 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 48 min
- 7:20 AM – 6:07 PM
- Cloud cover
- 42%
- 6th clearest
- Wind
- 9 km/h
- 7th windiest
- Solar energy
- 4.18 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 6.4
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 18°C through the month.
A typical February day in Ben Ahmed reaches about 18°C in the afternoon and slips back to 8°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 12°C and 22°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 1°C warmer than January and about 2°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
| Avg low (°C) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 17 | 7 |
| 2 | 17 | 7 |
| 3 | 17 | 7 |
| 4 | 17 | 7 |
| 5 | 17 | 7 |
| 6 | 17 | 7 |
| 7 | 17 | 7 |
| 8 | 17 | 7 |
| 9 | 17 | 7 |
| 10 | 17 | 7 |
| 11 | 17 | 7 |
| 12 | 18 | 7 |
| 13 | 18 | 7 |
| 14 | 18 | 8 |
| 15 | 18 | 8 |
| 16 | 18 | 8 |
| 17 | 18 | 8 |
| 18 | 18 | 8 |
| 19 | 18 | 8 |
| 20 | 18 | 8 |
| 21 | 18 | 8 |
| 22 | 18 | 8 |
| 23 | 18 | 8 |
| 24 | 18 | 8 |
| 25 | 18 | 8 |
| 26 | 18 | 8 |
| 27 | 18 | 8 |
| 28 | 18 | 8 |
Ben Ahmed weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 5th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 16° / 7° | 42 | 6.2 | 10.1 | 5.9 |
| Feb | 18° / 8° | 41 | 6.4 | 10.8 | 6.4 |
| Mar | 20° / 10° | 46 | 7.2 | 11.7 | 6.9 |
| Apr | 21° / 11° | 39 | 6.6 | 12.8 | 7.3 |
| May | 25° / 14° | 26 | 5.1 | 13.7 | 8.0 |
| Jun | 28° / 16° | 7 | 2.1 | 14.1 | 7.9 |
| Jul | 31° / 19° | 3 | 1.3 | 14 | 6.0 |
| Aug | 31° / 20° | 5 | 1.6 | 13.2 | 5.9 |
| Sep | 28° / 17° | 15 | 2.9 | 12.2 | 7.5 |
| Oct | 25° / 15° | 33 | 5.2 | 11.2 | 7.9 |
| Nov | 20° / 11° | 53 | 6.5 | 10.3 | 7.1 |
| Dec | 18° / 8° | 47 | 6.3 | 9.9 | 6.5 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 49% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 15% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 36%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 64 | 63 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 64 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 62 | 62 | 63 | 63 |
| Cloudier (%) | 36 | 37 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 37 | 37 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 64 | 36 |
| 2 | 63 | 37 |
| 3 | 64 | 36 |
| 4 | 64 | 36 |
| 5 | 64 | 36 |
| 6 | 64 | 36 |
| 7 | 64 | 36 |
| 8 | 64 | 36 |
| 9 | 64 | 36 |
| 10 | 64 | 36 |
| 11 | 64 | 36 |
| 12 | 64 | 36 |
| 13 | 64 | 36 |
| 14 | 64 | 36 |
| 15 | 64 | 36 |
| 16 | 64 | 36 |
| 17 | 64 | 36 |
| 18 | 64 | 36 |
| 19 | 64 | 36 |
| 20 | 63 | 37 |
| 21 | 63 | 37 |
| 22 | 63 | 37 |
| 23 | 63 | 37 |
| 24 | 63 | 37 |
| 25 | 62 | 38 |
| 26 | 62 | 38 |
| 27 | 63 | 37 |
| 28 | 63 | 37 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Ben Ahmed gets around 41 mm of rain over 6.4 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 23% and peaks near 26% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 23 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 23 |
| 2 | 23 |
| 3 | 22 |
| 4 | 22 |
| 5 | 21 |
| 6 | 21 |
| 7 | 21 |
| 8 | 20 |
| 9 | 20 |
| 10 | 20 |
| 11 | 20 |
| 12 | 20 |
| 13 | 21 |
| 14 | 21 |
| 15 | 21 |
| 16 | 22 |
| 17 | 23 |
| 18 | 23 |
| 19 | 24 |
| 20 | 25 |
| 21 | 25 |
| 22 | 26 |
| 23 | 26 |
| 24 | 26 |
| 25 | 26 |
| 26 | 26 |
| 27 | 26 |
| 28 | 26 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 99% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 |
| Comfortable (%) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 99 | 1 |
| 2 | 99 | 1 |
| 3 | 99 | 1 |
| 4 | 99 | 1 |
| 5 | 99 | 1 |
| 6 | 99 | 1 |
| 7 | 99 | 1 |
| 8 | 99 | 1 |
| 9 | 99 | 1 |
| 10 | 99 | 1 |
| 11 | 99 | 1 |
| 12 | 99 | 1 |
| 13 | 99 | 1 |
| 14 | 99 | 1 |
| 15 | 99 | 1 |
| 16 | 99 | 1 |
| 17 | 99 | 1 |
| 18 | 99 | 1 |
| 19 | 100 | 0 |
| 20 | 100 | 0 |
| 21 | 100 | 0 |
| 22 | 100 | 0 |
| 23 | 100 | 0 |
| 24 | 100 | 0 |
| 25 | 100 | 0 |
| 26 | 99 | 1 |
| 27 | 99 | 1 |
| 28 | 99 | 1 |
Wind in February
Winds average 9 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 9 km/h on the calmest days to 10 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 9 | calm |
| 2 | 9 | calm |
| 3 | 9 | calm |
| 4 | 9 | calm |
| 5 | 9 | calm |
| 6 | 9 | calm |
| 7 | 9 | calm |
| 8 | 9 | calm |
| 9 | 9 | calm |
| 10 | 9 | calm |
| 11 | 9 | calm |
| 12 | 9 | calm |
| 13 | 9 | calm |
| 14 | 9 | calm |
| 15 | 9 | calm |
| 16 | 9 | calm |
| 17 | 9 | calm |
| 18 | 9 | calm |
| 19 | 9 | calm |
| 20 | 9 | calm |
| 21 | 9 | calm |
| 22 | 9 | calm |
| 23 | 9 | calm |
| 24 | 10 | calm |
| 25 | 10 | calm |
| 26 | 10 | calm |
| 27 | 10 | calm |
| 28 | 10 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 10 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 12 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 48 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:31 AM to 7:06 AM, and sunset from 5:54 PM to 6:18 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 11.2 | 11.2 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:31 | 7:30 | 7:30 | 7:29 | 7:28 | 7:28 | 7:27 | 7:26 | 7:25 | 7:24 | 7:24 | 7:23 | 7:22 | 7:21 | 7:20 | 7:19 | 7:18 | 7:17 | 7:16 | 7:15 | 7:14 | 7:13 | 7:12 | 7:11 | 7:10 | 7:09 | 7:08 | 7:06 |
| Sunset (PM) | 5:54 | 5:55 | 5:56 | 5:57 | 5:58 | 5:59 | 6:00 | 6:01 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:03 | 6:04 | 6:05 | 6:06 | 6:07 | 6:08 | 6:09 | 6:10 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:12 | 6:13 | 6:14 | 6:15 | 6:16 | 6:17 | 6:18 | 6:18 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10.4 | 7:31 | 5:54 |
| 2 | 10.4 | 7:30 | 5:55 |
| 3 | 10.4 | 7:30 | 5:56 |
| 4 | 10.5 | 7:29 | 5:57 |
| 5 | 10.5 | 7:28 | 5:58 |
| 6 | 10.5 | 7:28 | 5:59 |
| 7 | 10.5 | 7:27 | 6:00 |
| 8 | 10.6 | 7:26 | 6:01 |
| 9 | 10.6 | 7:25 | 6:02 |
| 10 | 10.6 | 7:24 | 6:02 |
| 11 | 10.7 | 7:24 | 6:03 |
| 12 | 10.7 | 7:23 | 6:04 |
| 13 | 10.7 | 7:22 | 6:05 |
| 14 | 10.8 | 7:21 | 6:06 |
| 15 | 10.8 | 7:20 | 6:07 |
| 16 | 10.8 | 7:19 | 6:08 |
| 17 | 10.8 | 7:18 | 6:09 |
| 18 | 10.9 | 7:17 | 6:10 |
| 19 | 10.9 | 7:16 | 6:11 |
| 20 | 10.9 | 7:15 | 6:11 |
| 21 | 11.0 | 7:14 | 6:12 |
| 22 | 11.0 | 7:13 | 6:13 |
| 23 | 11.0 | 7:12 | 6:14 |
| 24 | 11.1 | 7:11 | 6:15 |
| 25 | 11.1 | 7:10 | 6:16 |
| 26 | 11.1 | 7:09 | 6:17 |
| 27 | 11.2 | 7:08 | 6:18 |
| 28 | 11.2 | 7:06 | 6:18 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 4.18 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 2.93 kWh/m² to a high of 7.8 kWh/m² in July across the year — February's 4.18 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 2 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 3 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 4 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 5 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 6 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 7 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 8 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 9 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 10 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 11 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 12 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 13 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 14 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 15 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 16 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 17 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 18 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 19 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 20 | 4.4 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.4 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.4 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.5 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.5 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.5 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.6 | Bright |
Hazard calendar for Ben Ahmed
None of Ben Ahmed's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Ben Ahmed sees seasonal dust haze (July–August), heaviest in July.
Is February a good time to visit Ben Ahmed?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Ben Ahmed for sightseeing.
What to pack for Ben Ahmed in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Ben Ahmed sees daytime highs around 18°C and nights near 8°C. Worth packing: a warm layer. About 6 days see rain.
UV index in Ben Ahmed in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 4 — enough to warrant sun protection. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Ben Ahmed peaks around July 19 at about 11 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 17 at about 3 (moderate).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 11 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 4 | 4 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 10 | 7 | 7 | 4 | 3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Very high | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | High | Moderate | Moderate |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 4 | Moderate |
| Feb | 4 | Moderate |
| Mar | 8 | Very high |
| Apr | 9 | Very high |
| May | 9 | Very high |
| Jun | 9 | Very high |
| Jul | 11 | Extreme |
| Aug | 10 | Extreme |
| Sep | 7 | Very high |
| Oct | 7 | High |
| Nov | 4 | Moderate |
| Dec | 3 | Moderate |
Air quality in Ben Ahmed in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Ben Ahmed is worst in January — around 43 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), about 2.4× the cleanest month (June, 18 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 43 | 41 | 32 | 27 | 21 | 18 | 21 | 25 | 25 | 34 | 36 | 41 |
| Level | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 43 | Poor |
| Feb | 41 | Poor |
| Mar | 32 | Moderate |
| Apr | 27 | Moderate |
| May | 21 | Moderate |
| Jun | 18 | Moderate |
| Jul | 21 | Moderate |
| Aug | 25 | Moderate |
| Sep | 25 | Moderate |
| Oct | 34 | Moderate |
| Nov | 36 | Poor |
| Dec | 41 | Poor |
Where is Ben Ahmed?
Ben Ahmed sits at 33.1°N, 7.2°W, 603 m above sea level, in Morocco. The nearest listed city is El Gara, 23 km away.
Topography around Ben Ahmed
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Ben Ahmed.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Ben Ahmed has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 164 m around an average of 615 m above sea level; within 16 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 439 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,068 m.
The land around Ben Ahmed is covered by cropland (85%) within 3 km, cropland (91%) within 16 km, and cropland (66%) and grassland (23%) within 80 km.
Morocco travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type C / E
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 42% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $4,672
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.6 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 80%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 1.7
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 17
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Lower middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 492
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Ben Ahmed (33.0663°, -7.2416°, elevation 603 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).