Islamabad weather in February
In February, Islamabad sees average daytime highs of 18°C and overnight lows near 8°C, with 115 mm of rain across 8.8 wet days and about 10.7 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 4th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 17°C in the first days to 19°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 44% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 10 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 12 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Islamabad's 11th-clearest and 5th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Islamabad's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 18°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 8°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 115 mm
- 8.8 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 48 min
- 7:00 AM – 5:45 PM
- Cloud cover
- 49%
- 11th clearest
- Wind
- 7 km/h
- 5th windiest
- Solar energy
- 3.83 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 6.0
- out of 10
Islamabad is capital city of Pakistan.
- Air quality
- High
- PM2.5 32.3 µg/m³ · 2020
- Density
- 664/km²
- people per km²
- Founded
- 1960
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 17°C in the first days to 19°C by the end.
A typical February day in Islamabad reaches about 18°C in the afternoon and slips back to 8°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 14°C and 22°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 5°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 |
| Avg low (°C) | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 17 | 6 |
| 2 | 17 | 6 |
| 3 | 17 | 7 |
| 4 | 17 | 7 |
| 5 | 17 | 7 |
| 6 | 17 | 7 |
| 7 | 17 | 7 |
| 8 | 17 | 7 |
| 9 | 17 | 7 |
| 10 | 18 | 7 |
| 11 | 18 | 7 |
| 12 | 18 | 8 |
| 13 | 18 | 8 |
| 14 | 18 | 8 |
| 15 | 18 | 8 |
| 16 | 18 | 8 |
| 17 | 18 | 8 |
| 18 | 18 | 8 |
| 19 | 18 | 8 |
| 20 | 19 | 8 |
| 21 | 19 | 9 |
| 22 | 19 | 9 |
| 23 | 19 | 9 |
| 24 | 19 | 9 |
| 25 | 19 | 9 |
| 26 | 19 | 9 |
| 27 | 20 | 9 |
| 28 | 20 | 9 |
How February really feels in Islamabad
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
February sits comfortably in between — no days that feel dangerously hot or drop to a hard freeze once humidity and wind are folded in.
Islamabad weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 4th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 16° / 5° | 70 | 6.6 | 10 | 5.6 |
| Feb | 18° / 8° | 115 | 8.8 | 10.7 | 6.0 |
| Mar | 23° / 12° | 124 | 10.1 | 11.7 | 6.8 |
| Apr | 28° / 17° | 82 | 8.6 | 12.8 | 6.1 |
| May | 34° / 21° | 37 | 7.6 | 13.7 | 3.4 |
| Jun | 36° / 25° | 61 | 7.7 | 14.2 | 2.2 |
| Jul | 34° / 25° | 163 | 18 | 14 | 2.8 |
| Aug | 32° / 25° | 164 | 17.8 | 13.3 | 3.4 |
| Sep | 32° / 22° | 69 | 8.4 | 12.2 | 4.7 |
| Oct | 28° / 17° | 29 | 3.3 | 11.2 | 7.3 |
| Nov | 23° / 11° | 30 | 3.2 | 10.3 | 8.4 |
| Dec | 18° / 7° | 31 | 3.3 | 9.8 | 7.1 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 44% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 13% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 43%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 60 | 60 | 59 | 58 | 58 | 57 | 57 | 56 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 56 | 55 | 55 | 56 | 56 | 56 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 58 | 58 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 58 | 58 | 58 |
| Cloudier (%) | 40 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 42 | 43 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 45 | 45 | 44 | 45 | 45 | 44 | 44 | 44 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 42 | 42 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 42 | 42 | 42 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 60 | 40 |
| 2 | 60 | 40 |
| 3 | 59 | 41 |
| 4 | 58 | 42 |
| 5 | 58 | 42 |
| 6 | 57 | 43 |
| 7 | 57 | 43 |
| 8 | 56 | 44 |
| 9 | 55 | 45 |
| 10 | 55 | 45 |
| 11 | 55 | 45 |
| 12 | 56 | 44 |
| 13 | 55 | 45 |
| 14 | 55 | 45 |
| 15 | 56 | 44 |
| 16 | 56 | 44 |
| 17 | 56 | 44 |
| 18 | 57 | 43 |
| 19 | 57 | 43 |
| 20 | 57 | 43 |
| 21 | 58 | 42 |
| 22 | 58 | 42 |
| 23 | 57 | 43 |
| 24 | 57 | 43 |
| 25 | 57 | 43 |
| 26 | 58 | 42 |
| 27 | 58 | 42 |
| 28 | 58 | 42 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Islamabad gets around 115 mm of rain over 8.8 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 32% and peaks near 34% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 27 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 34 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 27 |
| 2 | 28 |
| 3 | 29 |
| 4 | 29 |
| 5 | 30 |
| 6 | 30 |
| 7 | 30 |
| 8 | 31 |
| 9 | 31 |
| 10 | 31 |
| 11 | 32 |
| 12 | 32 |
| 13 | 32 |
| 14 | 32 |
| 15 | 32 |
| 16 | 32 |
| 17 | 32 |
| 18 | 32 |
| 19 | 32 |
| 20 | 32 |
| 21 | 33 |
| 22 | 33 |
| 23 | 33 |
| 24 | 33 |
| 25 | 33 |
| 26 | 34 |
| 27 | 34 |
| 28 | 34 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 7 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 7 km/h on the calmest days to 7 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 7 | calm |
| 2 | 7 | calm |
| 3 | 7 | calm |
| 4 | 7 | calm |
| 5 | 7 | calm |
| 6 | 7 | calm |
| 7 | 7 | calm |
| 8 | 7 | calm |
| 9 | 7 | calm |
| 10 | 7 | calm |
| 11 | 7 | calm |
| 12 | 7 | calm |
| 13 | 7 | calm |
| 14 | 7 | calm |
| 15 | 7 | calm |
| 16 | 7 | calm |
| 17 | 7 | calm |
| 18 | 7 | calm |
| 19 | 7 | calm |
| 20 | 7 | calm |
| 21 | 7 | calm |
| 22 | 7 | calm |
| 23 | 7 | calm |
| 24 | 7 | calm |
| 25 | 7 | calm |
| 26 | 7 | calm |
| 27 | 7 | calm |
| 28 | 7 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 10 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 12 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 54 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:11 AM to 6:46 AM, and sunset from 5:32 PM to 5:57 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 10.3 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 11.2 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:11 | 7:10 | 7:10 | 7:09 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:07 | 7:06 | 7:05 | 7:04 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:02 | 7:01 | 7:00 | 6:59 | 6:58 | 6:57 | 6:56 | 6:55 | 6:54 | 6:53 | 6:52 | 6:50 | 6:49 | 6:48 | 6:47 | 6:46 |
| Sunset (PM) | 5:32 | 5:33 | 5:34 | 5:35 | 5:36 | 5:36 | 5:37 | 5:38 | 5:39 | 5:40 | 5:41 | 5:42 | 5:43 | 5:44 | 5:45 | 5:46 | 5:47 | 5:48 | 5:49 | 5:50 | 5:50 | 5:51 | 5:52 | 5:53 | 5:54 | 5:55 | 5:56 | 5:57 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10.3 | 7:11 | 5:32 |
| 2 | 10.4 | 7:10 | 5:33 |
| 3 | 10.4 | 7:10 | 5:34 |
| 4 | 10.4 | 7:09 | 5:35 |
| 5 | 10.5 | 7:08 | 5:36 |
| 6 | 10.5 | 7:08 | 5:36 |
| 7 | 10.5 | 7:07 | 5:37 |
| 8 | 10.5 | 7:06 | 5:38 |
| 9 | 10.6 | 7:05 | 5:39 |
| 10 | 10.6 | 7:04 | 5:40 |
| 11 | 10.6 | 7:03 | 5:41 |
| 12 | 10.7 | 7:03 | 5:42 |
| 13 | 10.7 | 7:02 | 5:43 |
| 14 | 10.7 | 7:01 | 5:44 |
| 15 | 10.8 | 7:00 | 5:45 |
| 16 | 10.8 | 6:59 | 5:46 |
| 17 | 10.8 | 6:58 | 5:47 |
| 18 | 10.8 | 6:57 | 5:48 |
| 19 | 10.9 | 6:56 | 5:49 |
| 20 | 10.9 | 6:55 | 5:50 |
| 21 | 10.9 | 6:54 | 5:50 |
| 22 | 11.0 | 6:53 | 5:51 |
| 23 | 11.0 | 6:52 | 5:52 |
| 24 | 11.0 | 6:50 | 5:53 |
| 25 | 11.1 | 6:49 | 5:54 |
| 26 | 11.1 | 6:48 | 5:55 |
| 27 | 11.1 | 6:47 | 5:56 |
| 28 | 11.2 | 6:46 | 5:57 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 3.83 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 3.08 kWh/m² to a high of 7.18 kWh/m² in May across the year — February's 3.83 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.4 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 2 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 3 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 4 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 5 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 6 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 7 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 8 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 9 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 10 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 11 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 12 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 13 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 14 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 15 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 16 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 17 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 18 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 19 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 20 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.4 | Bright |
Hazard calendar for Islamabad
None of Islamabad's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Islamabad sees seasonal dust haze (June–August), heaviest in June.
Is February a good time to visit Islamabad?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Islamabad for sightseeing.
What to pack for Islamabad in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Islamabad sees daytime highs around 18°C and nights near 8°C. Worth packing: a warm layer and rain gear. About 9 days see rain.
UV index in Islamabad in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 4 — enough to warrant sun protection. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Islamabad peaks around May 22 at about 10 (very high) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near January 11 at about 2 (moderate).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 9 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 2 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 2 | 3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | High | High | Very high | Very high | Very high | Very high | Very high | High | Moderate | Moderate |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 2 | Moderate |
| Feb | 4 | Moderate |
| Mar | 6 | High |
| Apr | 6 | High |
| May | 10 | Very high |
| Jun | 9 | Very high |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 8 | Very high |
| Sep | 7 | Very high |
| Oct | 6 | High |
| Nov | 2 | Moderate |
| Dec | 3 | Moderate |
Air quality in Islamabad in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Islamabad is worst in January — around 48 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), about 2.3× the cleanest month (May, 21 µg/m³).
Seasonal pattern from CAMS reanalysis, scaled to Islamabad's WHO annual average of 32.3 µg/m³.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 48 | 41 | 33 | 25 | 21 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 25 | 33 | 43 | 48 |
| Level | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 48 | Poor |
| Feb | 41 | Poor |
| Mar | 33 | Moderate |
| Apr | 25 | Moderate |
| May | 21 | Moderate |
| Jun | 23 | Moderate |
| Jul | 23 | Moderate |
| Aug | 23 | Moderate |
| Sep | 25 | Moderate |
| Oct | 33 | Moderate |
| Nov | 43 | Poor |
| Dec | 48 | Poor |
Where is Islamabad?
Islamabad sits at 33.7°N, 73.0°E, 579 m above sea level, in Pakistan. The nearest listed city is Murree, 38 km away.
Topography around Islamabad
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Islamabad.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Islamabad has significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 504 m around an average of 613 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,135 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,726 m.
The land around Islamabad is covered by trees (51%) and artificial surfaces (42%) within 3 km, trees (46%) and artificial surfaces (27%) within 16 km, and trees (35%) and cropland (32%) within 80 km.
Pakistan travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 3
- Reconsider Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / D / G / M
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 24% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $1,596
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.9 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 45%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 4.3
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 13
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Lower middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 493
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Islamabad (33.7215°, 73.0433°, elevation 579 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).