Osuna weather in February
In February, Osuna sees average daytime highs of 16°C and overnight lows near 6°C, with 46 mm of precipitation across 6.6 wet days and about 10.6 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 6th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 15°C in the first days to 17°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 45% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 10 h 06 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Osuna's 7th-clearest and 3rd-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Osuna's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 16°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 6°
- 2nd coldest
- Precipitation
- 46 mm
- 6.6 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 36 min
- 8:18 AM – 6:52 PM
- Cloud cover
- 46%
- 7th clearest
- Wind
- 10 km/h
- 3rd windiest
- Solar energy
- 3.56 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 5.5
- out of 10
Osuna is capital of Osuna Municipality, Spain.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 15°C in the first days to 17°C by the end.
A typical February day in Osuna reaches about 16°C in the afternoon and slips back to 6°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 12°C and 20°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 3°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 |
| Avg low (°C) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 15 | 6 |
| 2 | 15 | 6 |
| 3 | 15 | 6 |
| 4 | 15 | 6 |
| 5 | 15 | 6 |
| 6 | 15 | 6 |
| 7 | 15 | 6 |
| 8 | 16 | 6 |
| 9 | 16 | 6 |
| 10 | 16 | 6 |
| 11 | 16 | 6 |
| 12 | 16 | 6 |
| 13 | 16 | 6 |
| 14 | 16 | 6 |
| 15 | 16 | 6 |
| 16 | 16 | 6 |
| 17 | 16 | 6 |
| 18 | 16 | 6 |
| 19 | 16 | 6 |
| 20 | 16 | 7 |
| 21 | 16 | 7 |
| 22 | 17 | 7 |
| 23 | 17 | 7 |
| 24 | 17 | 7 |
| 25 | 17 | 7 |
| 26 | 17 | 7 |
| 27 | 17 | 7 |
| 28 | 17 | 7 |
How February really feels in Osuna
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
February sits comfortably in between — no days that feel dangerously hot or drop to a hard freeze once humidity and wind are folded in.
Osuna weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 6th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 15° / 5° | 48 | 7.2 | 9.7 | 4.8 |
| Feb | 16° / 6° | 46 | 6.6 | 10.6 | 5.5 |
| Mar | 19° / 8° | 53 | 7.3 | 11.7 | 6.6 |
| Apr | 21° / 10° | 42 | 7 | 12.9 | 7.1 |
| May | 25° / 13° | 30 | 5.4 | 14 | 7.8 |
| Jun | 30° / 17° | 7 | 1.4 | 14.5 | 6.4 |
| Jul | 34° / 19° | 2 | 0.3 | 14.3 | 4.4 |
| Aug | 33° / 20° | 3 | 0.7 | 13.4 | 4.5 |
| Sep | 29° / 17° | 31 | 3.5 | 12.3 | 6.8 |
| Oct | 24° / 14° | 55 | 6.6 | 11 | 7.5 |
| Nov | 18° / 9° | 62 | 6.9 | 10 | 6.4 |
| Dec | 15° / 7° | 67 | 7.8 | 9.5 | 5.0 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 45% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 15% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 40%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 61 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 61 | 60 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 60 | 60 | 59 | 59 | 59 | 58 | 57 | 57 | 57 |
| Cloudier (%) | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 39 | 39 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 39 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 43 | 43 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 60 | 40 |
| 2 | 60 | 40 |
| 3 | 60 | 40 |
| 4 | 60 | 40 |
| 5 | 60 | 40 |
| 6 | 61 | 39 |
| 7 | 60 | 40 |
| 8 | 60 | 40 |
| 9 | 60 | 40 |
| 10 | 60 | 40 |
| 11 | 60 | 40 |
| 12 | 60 | 40 |
| 13 | 61 | 39 |
| 14 | 61 | 39 |
| 15 | 61 | 39 |
| 16 | 60 | 40 |
| 17 | 60 | 40 |
| 18 | 61 | 39 |
| 19 | 61 | 39 |
| 20 | 60 | 40 |
| 21 | 60 | 40 |
| 22 | 59 | 41 |
| 23 | 59 | 41 |
| 24 | 59 | 41 |
| 25 | 58 | 42 |
| 26 | 57 | 43 |
| 27 | 57 | 43 |
| 28 | 57 | 43 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Osuna gets around 46 mm of rain and snow over 6.6 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable precipitation averages around 24% and peaks near 26% on the wettest days, and about 0 day brings snow.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 24 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 24 |
| 2 | 24 |
| 3 | 23 |
| 4 | 23 |
| 5 | 23 |
| 6 | 22 |
| 7 | 22 |
| 8 | 22 |
| 9 | 22 |
| 10 | 22 |
| 11 | 22 |
| 12 | 22 |
| 13 | 22 |
| 14 | 23 |
| 15 | 23 |
| 16 | 23 |
| 17 | 24 |
| 18 | 24 |
| 19 | 25 |
| 20 | 25 |
| 21 | 25 |
| 22 | 25 |
| 23 | 26 |
| 24 | 26 |
| 25 | 26 |
| 26 | 26 |
| 27 | 26 |
| 28 | 26 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 99% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 |
| Comfortable (%) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 100 | 0 |
| 2 | 100 | 0 |
| 3 | 99 | 1 |
| 4 | 99 | 1 |
| 5 | 99 | 1 |
| 6 | 99 | 1 |
| 7 | 99 | 1 |
| 8 | 99 | 1 |
| 9 | 99 | 1 |
| 10 | 99 | 1 |
| 11 | 99 | 1 |
| 12 | 99 | 1 |
| 13 | 99 | 1 |
| 14 | 99 | 1 |
| 15 | 99 | 1 |
| 16 | 99 | 1 |
| 17 | 99 | 1 |
| 18 | 99 | 1 |
| 19 | 99 | 1 |
| 20 | 99 | 1 |
| 21 | 99 | 1 |
| 22 | 99 | 1 |
| 23 | 100 | 0 |
| 24 | 100 | 0 |
| 25 | 100 | 0 |
| 26 | 99 | 1 |
| 27 | 99 | 1 |
| 28 | 99 | 1 |
Wind in February
Winds average 10 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 10 km/h on the calmest days to 11 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10 | calm |
| 2 | 10 | calm |
| 3 | 10 | calm |
| 4 | 10 | calm |
| 5 | 10 | calm |
| 6 | 10 | calm |
| 7 | 10 | calm |
| 8 | 10 | calm |
| 9 | 10 | calm |
| 10 | 10 | calm |
| 11 | 10 | calm |
| 12 | 10 | calm |
| 13 | 10 | calm |
| 14 | 10 | calm |
| 15 | 10 | calm |
| 16 | 10 | calm |
| 17 | 10 | calm |
| 18 | 10 | calm |
| 19 | 10 | calm |
| 20 | 10 | calm |
| 21 | 10 | calm |
| 22 | 10 | calm |
| 23 | 10 | calm |
| 24 | 10 | calm |
| 25 | 10 | calm |
| 26 | 10 | calm |
| 27 | 11 | calm |
| 28 | 11 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 10 h 06 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 60 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 8:31 AM to 8:02 AM, and sunset from 6:37 PM to 7:06 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 10.1 | 10.1 | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.1 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 8:31 | 8:30 | 8:29 | 8:28 | 8:27 | 8:27 | 8:26 | 8:25 | 8:24 | 8:23 | 8:22 | 8:21 | 8:20 | 8:19 | 8:18 | 8:17 | 8:15 | 8:14 | 8:13 | 8:12 | 8:11 | 8:10 | 8:08 | 8:07 | 8:06 | 8:05 | 8:03 | 8:02 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:37 | 6:38 | 6:39 | 6:41 | 6:42 | 6:43 | 6:44 | 6:45 | 6:46 | 6:47 | 6:48 | 6:49 | 6:50 | 6:51 | 6:52 | 6:53 | 6:54 | 6:55 | 6:57 | 6:58 | 6:59 | 7:00 | 7:01 | 7:02 | 7:03 | 7:04 | 7:05 | 7:06 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10.1 | 8:31 | 6:37 |
| 2 | 10.1 | 8:30 | 6:38 |
| 3 | 10.2 | 8:29 | 6:39 |
| 4 | 10.2 | 8:28 | 6:41 |
| 5 | 10.2 | 8:27 | 6:42 |
| 6 | 10.3 | 8:27 | 6:43 |
| 7 | 10.3 | 8:26 | 6:44 |
| 8 | 10.3 | 8:25 | 6:45 |
| 9 | 10.4 | 8:24 | 6:46 |
| 10 | 10.4 | 8:23 | 6:47 |
| 11 | 10.4 | 8:22 | 6:48 |
| 12 | 10.5 | 8:21 | 6:49 |
| 13 | 10.5 | 8:20 | 6:50 |
| 14 | 10.5 | 8:19 | 6:51 |
| 15 | 10.6 | 8:18 | 6:52 |
| 16 | 10.6 | 8:17 | 6:53 |
| 17 | 10.6 | 8:15 | 6:54 |
| 18 | 10.7 | 8:14 | 6:55 |
| 19 | 10.7 | 8:13 | 6:57 |
| 20 | 10.8 | 8:12 | 6:58 |
| 21 | 10.8 | 8:11 | 6:59 |
| 22 | 10.8 | 8:10 | 7:00 |
| 23 | 10.9 | 8:08 | 7:01 |
| 24 | 10.9 | 8:07 | 7:02 |
| 25 | 10.9 | 8:06 | 7:03 |
| 26 | 11.0 | 8:05 | 7:04 |
| 27 | 11.0 | 8:03 | 7:05 |
| 28 | 11.1 | 8:02 | 7:06 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 3.56 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 2.24 kWh/m² to a high of 8.01 kWh/m² in July across the year — February's 3.56 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 3.0 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.1 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.0 | Moderate |
| 2 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 3 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 4 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 5 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 6 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 7 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 8 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 9 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 10 | 3.4 | Moderate |
| 11 | 3.4 | Moderate |
| 12 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 13 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 14 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 15 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 16 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 17 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 18 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 19 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 20 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 21 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 22 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 23 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 24 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 25 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 26 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 27 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.1 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit Osuna?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Osuna for sightseeing.
What to pack for Osuna in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Osuna sees daytime highs around 16°C and nights near 6°C. Worth packing: a warm layer. About 7 days see rain.
UV index in Osuna in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 2. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Osuna peaks around July 17 at about 10 (very high) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 20 at about 2 (moderate).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 8 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 2 | 2 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | High | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Very high | High | High | Moderate | Moderate |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 2 | Moderate |
| Feb | 2 | Moderate |
| Mar | 7 | High |
| Apr | 8 | Very high |
| May | 7 | Very high |
| Jun | 9 | Very high |
| Jul | 10 | Extreme |
| Aug | 9 | Very high |
| Sep | 7 | High |
| Oct | 5 | High |
| Nov | 3 | Moderate |
| Dec | 2 | Moderate |
Air quality in Osuna in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Osuna is worst in March — around 15 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 1.7× the cleanest month (November, 9 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 11 | 13 | 15 | 12 | 10 | 9 | 10 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 9 | 9 |
| Level | Good | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 11 | Good |
| Feb | 13 | Moderate |
| Mar | 15 | Moderate |
| Apr | 12 | Moderate |
| May | 10 | Good |
| Jun | 9 | Good |
| Jul | 10 | Good |
| Aug | 12 | Good |
| Sep | 11 | Good |
| Oct | 11 | Good |
| Nov | 9 | Good |
| Dec | 9 | Good |
Where is Osuna?
Osuna sits at 37.2°N, 5.1°W, 289 m above sea level, in Spain. The nearest listed city is Marchena, 30 km away.
Topography around Osuna
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Osuna.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Osuna has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 191 m around an average of 260 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 664 m; within 80 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,885 m.
The land around Osuna is covered by cropland (38%) and trees (33%) within 3 km, cropland (40%), trees (35%) and grassland (23%) within 16 km, and trees (40%), cropland (32%) and grassland (21%) within 80 km.
Spain travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type C / F
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 65% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $38,627
- 2025
- Happiness
- 6.5 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 99%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 0.7
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 3.9
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- High
- World Bank
- English
- Moderate
- EF EPI 540
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Osuna (37.2376°, -5.1031°, elevation 289 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).