Ar Raqqah weather in February
In February, Ar Raqqah sees average daytime highs of 15°C and overnight lows near 5°C, with 26 mm of precipitation across 5.8 wet days and about 10.6 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 13°C in the first days to 17°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 44% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 10 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Ar Raqqah's 10th-clearest and 8th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Ar Raqqah's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 15°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 5°
- 3rd coldest
- Precipitation
- 26 mm
- 5.8 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 36 min
- 6:19 AM – 4:58 PM
- Cloud cover
- 46%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 11 km/h
- 8th windiest
- Solar energy
- 3.74 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 5.0
- out of 10
Ar Raqqah is city in Syria.
- Density
- 271/km²
- people per km²
- Founded
- ~244 CE
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 13°C in the first days to 17°C by the end.
A typical February day in Ar Raqqah reaches about 15°C in the afternoon and slips back to 5°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 10°C and 19°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 3°C warmer than January and about 5°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 |
| Avg low (°C) | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 13 | 4 |
| 2 | 13 | 4 |
| 3 | 13 | 4 |
| 4 | 13 | 4 |
| 5 | 13 | 4 |
| 6 | 13 | 4 |
| 7 | 14 | 4 |
| 8 | 14 | 4 |
| 9 | 14 | 5 |
| 10 | 14 | 5 |
| 11 | 14 | 5 |
| 12 | 14 | 5 |
| 13 | 14 | 5 |
| 14 | 15 | 5 |
| 15 | 15 | 5 |
| 16 | 15 | 5 |
| 17 | 15 | 5 |
| 18 | 15 | 6 |
| 19 | 15 | 6 |
| 20 | 16 | 6 |
| 21 | 16 | 6 |
| 22 | 16 | 6 |
| 23 | 16 | 6 |
| 24 | 17 | 7 |
| 25 | 17 | 7 |
| 26 | 17 | 7 |
| 27 | 17 | 7 |
| 28 | 17 | 7 |
How February really feels in Ar Raqqah
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
February sits comfortably in between — no days that feel dangerously hot or drop to a hard freeze once humidity and wind are folded in.
Ar Raqqah weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 12° / 4° | 31 | 6.9 | 9.8 | 3.7 |
| Feb | 15° / 5° | 26 | 5.8 | 10.6 | 5.0 |
| Mar | 20° / 9° | 25 | 5 | 11.7 | 7.3 |
| Apr | 26° / 13° | 18 | 3.9 | 12.9 | 7.9 |
| May | 32° / 18° | 10 | 2.1 | 13.9 | 5.2 |
| Jun | 37° / 23° | 1 | 0.2 | 14.4 | 2.1 |
| Jul | 40° / 25° | 0 | 0.1 | 14.2 | 0.2 |
| Aug | 39° / 25° | 0 | 0.1 | 13.4 | 0.5 |
| Sep | 35° / 22° | 1 | 0.2 | 12.2 | 3.3 |
| Oct | 29° / 16° | 16 | 2.5 | 11.1 | 6.8 |
| Nov | 20° / 9° | 23 | 4.1 | 10.1 | 7.5 |
| Dec | 14° / 5° | 29 | 6.1 | 9.6 | 4.6 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 44% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 18% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 38%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 58 | 59 | 59 | 59 | 59 | 59 | 60 | 59 | 59 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 64 | 64 | 65 | 65 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 67 |
| Cloudier (%) | 42 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 36 | 36 | 35 | 35 | 34 | 34 | 33 | 33 | 33 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 58 | 42 |
| 2 | 59 | 41 |
| 3 | 59 | 41 |
| 4 | 59 | 41 |
| 5 | 59 | 41 |
| 6 | 59 | 41 |
| 7 | 60 | 40 |
| 8 | 59 | 41 |
| 9 | 59 | 41 |
| 10 | 60 | 40 |
| 11 | 60 | 40 |
| 12 | 60 | 40 |
| 13 | 60 | 40 |
| 14 | 62 | 38 |
| 15 | 62 | 38 |
| 16 | 62 | 38 |
| 17 | 63 | 37 |
| 18 | 63 | 37 |
| 19 | 63 | 37 |
| 20 | 64 | 36 |
| 21 | 64 | 36 |
| 22 | 65 | 35 |
| 23 | 65 | 35 |
| 24 | 66 | 34 |
| 25 | 66 | 34 |
| 26 | 67 | 33 |
| 27 | 67 | 33 |
| 28 | 67 | 33 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Ar Raqqah gets around 26 mm of rain and snow over 5.8 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable precipitation averages around 21% and peaks near 23% on the wettest days, and about 0 day brings snow.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 17 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 23 |
| 2 | 23 |
| 3 | 23 |
| 4 | 23 |
| 5 | 22 |
| 6 | 22 |
| 7 | 22 |
| 8 | 22 |
| 9 | 22 |
| 10 | 22 |
| 11 | 22 |
| 12 | 22 |
| 13 | 22 |
| 14 | 22 |
| 15 | 22 |
| 16 | 22 |
| 17 | 21 |
| 18 | 21 |
| 19 | 21 |
| 20 | 21 |
| 21 | 21 |
| 22 | 20 |
| 23 | 20 |
| 24 | 19 |
| 25 | 19 |
| 26 | 18 |
| 27 | 18 |
| 28 | 17 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 11 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 11 km/h on the calmest days to 12 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11 | calm |
| 2 | 11 | calm |
| 3 | 11 | calm |
| 4 | 11 | calm |
| 5 | 11 | calm |
| 6 | 11 | calm |
| 7 | 11 | calm |
| 8 | 11 | calm |
| 9 | 11 | calm |
| 10 | 11 | calm |
| 11 | 11 | calm |
| 12 | 11 | calm |
| 13 | 11 | calm |
| 14 | 11 | calm |
| 15 | 11 | calm |
| 16 | 11 | calm |
| 17 | 11 | calm |
| 18 | 11 | calm |
| 19 | 11 | calm |
| 20 | 11 | calm |
| 21 | 11 | calm |
| 22 | 11 | calm |
| 23 | 12 | calm |
| 24 | 12 | calm |
| 25 | 12 | calm |
| 26 | 12 | calm |
| 27 | 12 | calm |
| 28 | 12 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 10 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 54 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:31 AM to 6:04 AM, and sunset from 4:43 PM to 5:11 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.1 | 11.1 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:30 | 6:29 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:27 | 6:26 | 6:25 | 6:24 | 6:23 | 6:22 | 6:21 | 6:20 | 6:19 | 6:18 | 6:17 | 6:16 | 6:15 | 6:14 | 6:13 | 6:12 | 6:10 | 6:09 | 6:08 | 6:07 | 6:05 | 6:04 |
| Sunset (PM) | 4:43 | 4:45 | 4:46 | 4:47 | 4:48 | 4:49 | 4:50 | 4:51 | 4:52 | 4:53 | 4:54 | 4:55 | 4:56 | 4:57 | 4:58 | 4:59 | 5:00 | 5:01 | 5:02 | 5:03 | 5:04 | 5:05 | 5:06 | 5:07 | 5:08 | 5:09 | 5:10 | 5:11 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10.2 | 6:31 | 4:43 |
| 2 | 10.2 | 6:31 | 4:45 |
| 3 | 10.3 | 6:30 | 4:46 |
| 4 | 10.3 | 6:29 | 4:47 |
| 5 | 10.3 | 6:28 | 4:48 |
| 6 | 10.3 | 6:28 | 4:49 |
| 7 | 10.4 | 6:27 | 4:50 |
| 8 | 10.4 | 6:26 | 4:51 |
| 9 | 10.4 | 6:25 | 4:52 |
| 10 | 10.5 | 6:24 | 4:53 |
| 11 | 10.5 | 6:23 | 4:54 |
| 12 | 10.5 | 6:22 | 4:55 |
| 13 | 10.6 | 6:21 | 4:56 |
| 14 | 10.6 | 6:20 | 4:57 |
| 15 | 10.6 | 6:19 | 4:58 |
| 16 | 10.7 | 6:18 | 4:59 |
| 17 | 10.7 | 6:17 | 5:00 |
| 18 | 10.7 | 6:16 | 5:01 |
| 19 | 10.8 | 6:15 | 5:02 |
| 20 | 10.8 | 6:14 | 5:03 |
| 21 | 10.9 | 6:13 | 5:04 |
| 22 | 10.9 | 6:12 | 5:05 |
| 23 | 10.9 | 6:10 | 5:06 |
| 24 | 11.0 | 6:09 | 5:07 |
| 25 | 11.0 | 6:08 | 5:08 |
| 26 | 11.0 | 6:07 | 5:09 |
| 27 | 11.1 | 6:05 | 5:10 |
| 28 | 11.1 | 6:04 | 5:11 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 3.74 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 2.41 kWh/m² to a high of 8.07 kWh/m² in June across the year — February's 3.74 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 2 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 3 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 4 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 5 | 3.4 | Moderate |
| 6 | 3.4 | Moderate |
| 7 | 3.4 | Moderate |
| 8 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 9 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 10 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 11 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 12 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 13 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 14 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 15 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 16 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 17 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 18 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 19 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 20 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 21 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.3 | Bright |
Hazard calendar for Ar Raqqah
None of Ar Raqqah's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Ar Raqqah sees seasonal dust haze (May), heaviest in May.
Is February a good time to visit Ar Raqqah?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Ar Raqqah for sightseeing.
What to pack for Ar Raqqah in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Ar Raqqah sees daytime highs around 15°C and nights near 5°C. Worth packing: a warm layer. About 6 days see rain.
UV index in Ar Raqqah in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 3 — enough to warrant sun protection. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Ar Raqqah peaks around June 15 at about 9 (very high) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near January 12 at about 2 (moderate).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 10 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 10 | 7 | 9 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | High | Very high | Very high | High | Very high | High | High | Moderate | Moderate |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 2 | Moderate |
| Feb | 3 | Moderate |
| Mar | 4 | Moderate |
| Apr | 6 | High |
| May | 7 | Very high |
| Jun | 10 | Very high |
| Jul | 7 | High |
| Aug | 9 | Very high |
| Sep | 6 | High |
| Oct | 5 | High |
| Nov | 3 | Moderate |
| Dec | 3 | Moderate |
Air quality in Ar Raqqah in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Ar Raqqah is worst in March — around 39 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), and holds fairly steady the rest of the year.
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 28 | 31 | 39 | 37 | 37 | 34 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 31 | 28 | 28 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 28 | Moderate |
| Feb | 31 | Moderate |
| Mar | 39 | Poor |
| Apr | 37 | Poor |
| May | 37 | Poor |
| Jun | 34 | Moderate |
| Jul | 33 | Moderate |
| Aug | 33 | Moderate |
| Sep | 33 | Moderate |
| Oct | 31 | Moderate |
| Nov | 28 | Moderate |
| Dec | 28 | Moderate |
Where is Ar Raqqah?
Ar Raqqah sits at 36.0°N, 39.0°E, 259 m above sea level, in Syria. The nearest listed city is Al-Tabqa, 43 km away.
Topography around Ar Raqqah
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Ar Raqqah.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Ar Raqqah has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 30 m around an average of 249 m above sea level; within 16 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 174 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 639 m.
The land around Ar Raqqah is covered by artificial surfaces (66%) within 3 km, cropland (48%) and bare terrain (31%) within 16 km, and bare terrain (49%) and cropland (29%) within 80 km.
Syria travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E / L
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 32% of US
- price level, 2022
- GDP per capita
- $1,057
- 2022
- Happiness
- 3.5 / 10
- World Happiness, 2018
- Homicide rate
- 2.1
- per 100k, 2010
- Road deaths
- 14.9
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 456
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Ar Raqqah (35.9528°, 39.0079°, elevation 259 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).