Ludlow weather in February
In February, Ludlow sees average daytime highs of 37°F and overnight lows near 21°F, with 3.0 in of precipitation across 8.7 wet days and about 10.3 hours of daylight. It is the 11th-warmest and 12th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 35°F in the first days to 40°F by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 32% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 9 h 42 min at the start of February to 10 h 54 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Ludlow's 5th-clearest and 2nd-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Ludlow's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 37°
- 11th warmest
- Overnight low
- 21°
- 2nd coldest
- Precipitation
- 3.0 in
- 8.7 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 18 min
- 6:55 AM – 5:14 PM
- Cloud cover
- 59%
- 5th clearest
- Wind
- 7 mph
- 2nd windiest
- Solar energy
- 2.94 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 0.0
- out of 10
Ludlow is town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States.
- Founded
- 1751
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 35°F in the first days to 40°F by the end.
A typical February day in Ludlow reaches about 37°F in the afternoon and slips back to 21°F overnight — a 16°F spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 25°F and 49°F. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 3°F warmer than January and about 8°F cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°F) | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 35 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 39 | 39 | 39 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 40 |
| Avg low (°F) | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 24 |
| Avg high (°F) | Avg low (°F) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 35 | 19 |
| 2 | 35 | 19 |
| 3 | 35 | 19 |
| 4 | 35 | 19 |
| 5 | 35 | 19 |
| 6 | 35 | 19 |
| 7 | 35 | 19 |
| 8 | 35 | 19 |
| 9 | 35 | 19 |
| 10 | 36 | 19 |
| 11 | 36 | 20 |
| 12 | 36 | 20 |
| 13 | 36 | 20 |
| 14 | 36 | 20 |
| 15 | 37 | 20 |
| 16 | 37 | 21 |
| 17 | 37 | 21 |
| 18 | 37 | 21 |
| 19 | 38 | 22 |
| 20 | 38 | 22 |
| 21 | 38 | 22 |
| 22 | 39 | 22 |
| 23 | 39 | 23 |
| 24 | 39 | 23 |
| 25 | 39 | 23 |
| 26 | 40 | 23 |
| 27 | 40 | 24 |
| 28 | 40 | 24 |
How February really feels in Ludlow
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 90°F and 28 that feel at or below 32°F — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is cold — wind chill drags the overnight "feels like" below the raw low.
Ludlow weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 11th-warmest and 12th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°F) | Rainfall (inches) | Wet days | Snow days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 34° / 19° | 3.3 | 9.6 | 6.3 | 9.3 | 0.0 |
| Feb | 37° / 21° | 3.0 | 8.7 | 5.8 | 10.3 | 0.0 |
| Mar | 45° / 29° | 4.0 | 10.3 | 4.8 | 11.6 | 1.0 |
| Apr | 57° / 39° | 3.6 | 10.7 | 1.2 | 13.1 | 4.0 |
| May | 68° / 49° | 3.2 | 10.6 | 0 | 14.4 | 6.1 |
| Jun | 77° / 58° | 3.5 | 10.8 | 0 | 15 | 6.6 |
| Jul | 82° / 64° | 3.3 | 9.9 | 0 | 14.8 | 6.2 |
| Aug | 80° / 62° | 3.3 | 8.7 | 0 | 13.7 | 6.7 |
| Sep | 73° / 55° | 3.7 | 8.3 | 0 | 12.3 | 7.0 |
| Oct | 61° / 44° | 4.2 | 9.1 | 0.2 | 10.8 | 5.1 |
| Nov | 49° / 34° | 3.3 | 9.1 | 1.2 | 9.6 | 2.1 |
| Dec | 39° / 26° | 4.1 | 10.1 | 5 | 9 | 0.1 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 32% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 15% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 53%. Skies tend to cloud over as the month goes on.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 51 | 51 | 50 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 49 | 48 | 48 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 46 | 46 | 46 | 46 | 45 | 45 | 44 | 44 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 42 |
| Cloudier (%) | 49 | 49 | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 52 | 52 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 55 | 55 | 56 | 56 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 58 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 51 | 49 |
| 2 | 51 | 49 |
| 3 | 50 | 50 |
| 4 | 50 | 50 |
| 5 | 49 | 51 |
| 6 | 49 | 51 |
| 7 | 49 | 51 |
| 8 | 49 | 51 |
| 9 | 49 | 51 |
| 10 | 48 | 52 |
| 11 | 48 | 52 |
| 12 | 47 | 53 |
| 13 | 47 | 53 |
| 14 | 47 | 53 |
| 15 | 46 | 54 |
| 16 | 46 | 54 |
| 17 | 46 | 54 |
| 18 | 46 | 54 |
| 19 | 45 | 55 |
| 20 | 45 | 55 |
| 21 | 44 | 56 |
| 22 | 44 | 56 |
| 23 | 43 | 57 |
| 24 | 43 | 57 |
| 25 | 43 | 57 |
| 26 | 43 | 57 |
| 27 | 43 | 57 |
| 28 | 42 | 58 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Ludlow gets around 3.0 in of rain and snow over 8.7 wet days in February, the driest month. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable precipitation averages around 31% and peaks near 34% on the wettest days, and about 6 days bring snow.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 28 | 28 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 |
| Snow chance (%) | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Rain chance (%) | Snow chance (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 28 | 19 |
| 2 | 28 | 19 |
| 3 | 28 | 20 |
| 4 | 29 | 20 |
| 5 | 29 | 20 |
| 6 | 29 | 20 |
| 7 | 30 | 21 |
| 8 | 30 | 21 |
| 9 | 30 | 21 |
| 10 | 31 | 21 |
| 11 | 31 | 21 |
| 12 | 31 | 21 |
| 13 | 31 | 21 |
| 14 | 31 | 21 |
| 15 | 31 | 21 |
| 16 | 31 | 21 |
| 17 | 32 | 21 |
| 18 | 32 | 21 |
| 19 | 32 | 21 |
| 20 | 32 | 21 |
| 21 | 32 | 21 |
| 22 | 33 | 21 |
| 23 | 33 | 20 |
| 24 | 33 | 20 |
| 25 | 33 | 20 |
| 26 | 33 | 20 |
| 27 | 34 | 20 |
| 28 | 34 | 20 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 7 mph in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 7 mph on the calmest days to 7 mph at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (mph) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (mph) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 7 | calm |
| 2 | 7 | calm |
| 3 | 7 | calm |
| 4 | 7 | calm |
| 5 | 7 | calm |
| 6 | 7 | calm |
| 7 | 7 | calm |
| 8 | 7 | calm |
| 9 | 7 | calm |
| 10 | 7 | calm |
| 11 | 7 | calm |
| 12 | 7 | calm |
| 13 | 7 | calm |
| 14 | 7 | calm |
| 15 | 7 | calm |
| 16 | 7 | calm |
| 17 | 7 | calm |
| 18 | 7 | calm |
| 19 | 7 | calm |
| 20 | 7 | calm |
| 21 | 7 | calm |
| 22 | 7 | calm |
| 23 | 7 | calm |
| 24 | 7 | calm |
| 25 | 7 | calm |
| 26 | 7 | calm |
| 27 | 7 | calm |
| 28 | 7 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 9 h 42 min at the start of February to 10 h 54 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 72 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:11 AM to 6:37 AM, and sunset from 4:56 PM to 5:30 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 9.7 | 9.8 | 9.8 | 9.9 | 9.9 | 9.9 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.1 | 10.1 | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:11 | 7:10 | 7:09 | 7:08 | 7:07 | 7:06 | 7:05 | 7:04 | 7:03 | 7:02 | 7:01 | 6:59 | 6:58 | 6:57 | 6:55 | 6:54 | 6:53 | 6:51 | 6:50 | 6:49 | 6:47 | 6:46 | 6:44 | 6:43 | 6:41 | 6:40 | 6:38 | 6:37 |
| Sunset (PM) | 4:56 | 4:57 | 4:58 | 4:59 | 5:01 | 5:02 | 5:03 | 5:05 | 5:06 | 5:07 | 5:08 | 5:10 | 5:11 | 5:12 | 5:14 | 5:15 | 5:16 | 5:17 | 5:19 | 5:20 | 5:21 | 5:22 | 5:24 | 5:25 | 5:26 | 5:27 | 5:29 | 5:30 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 9.7 | 7:11 | 4:56 |
| 2 | 9.8 | 7:10 | 4:57 |
| 3 | 9.8 | 7:09 | 4:58 |
| 4 | 9.9 | 7:08 | 4:59 |
| 5 | 9.9 | 7:07 | 5:01 |
| 6 | 9.9 | 7:06 | 5:02 |
| 7 | 10.0 | 7:05 | 5:03 |
| 8 | 10.0 | 7:04 | 5:05 |
| 9 | 10.0 | 7:03 | 5:06 |
| 10 | 10.1 | 7:02 | 5:07 |
| 11 | 10.1 | 7:01 | 5:08 |
| 12 | 10.2 | 6:59 | 5:10 |
| 13 | 10.2 | 6:58 | 5:11 |
| 14 | 10.3 | 6:57 | 5:12 |
| 15 | 10.3 | 6:55 | 5:14 |
| 16 | 10.3 | 6:54 | 5:15 |
| 17 | 10.4 | 6:53 | 5:16 |
| 18 | 10.4 | 6:51 | 5:17 |
| 19 | 10.5 | 6:50 | 5:19 |
| 20 | 10.5 | 6:49 | 5:20 |
| 21 | 10.6 | 6:47 | 5:21 |
| 22 | 10.6 | 6:46 | 5:22 |
| 23 | 10.7 | 6:44 | 5:24 |
| 24 | 10.7 | 6:43 | 5:25 |
| 25 | 10.7 | 6:41 | 5:26 |
| 26 | 10.8 | 6:40 | 5:27 |
| 27 | 10.8 | 6:38 | 5:29 |
| 28 | 10.9 | 6:37 | 5:30 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 2.94 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 1.62 kWh/m² to a high of 5.9 kWh/m² in July across the year — February's 2.94 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 2.9 | 2.9 | 2.9 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 3.3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2.5 | Moderate |
| 2 | 2.5 | Moderate |
| 3 | 2.6 | Moderate |
| 4 | 2.6 | Moderate |
| 5 | 2.6 | Moderate |
| 6 | 2.7 | Moderate |
| 7 | 2.7 | Moderate |
| 8 | 2.7 | Moderate |
| 9 | 2.8 | Moderate |
| 10 | 2.8 | Moderate |
| 11 | 2.8 | Moderate |
| 12 | 2.9 | Moderate |
| 13 | 2.9 | Moderate |
| 14 | 2.9 | Moderate |
| 15 | 3.0 | Moderate |
| 16 | 3.0 | Moderate |
| 17 | 3.0 | Moderate |
| 18 | 3.0 | Moderate |
| 19 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 20 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 21 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 22 | 3.1 | Moderate |
| 23 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 24 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 25 | 3.2 | Moderate |
| 26 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 27 | 3.3 | Moderate |
| 28 | 3.3 | Moderate |
Is February a good time to visit Ludlow?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Ludlow.
What to pack for Ludlow in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Ludlow sees daytime highs around 37°F and nights near 21°F. Pack a warm layer and a heavy coat. Worth having: rain gear. About 9 days see rain.
UV index in Ludlow in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 3. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Ludlow peaks around July 11 at about 8 (very high) — sunscreen and a hat are worth it in the middle of the day. It bottoms out near January 1 at about 1 (low).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 8 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 1 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
| Level | Low | Moderate | Moderate | High | Very high | Very high | Very high | High | High | Moderate | Moderate | Low |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 1 | Low |
| Feb | 3 | Moderate |
| Mar | 4 | Moderate |
| Apr | 5 | High |
| May | 8 | Very high |
| Jun | 7 | Very high |
| Jul | 8 | Very high |
| Aug | 5 | High |
| Sep | 6 | High |
| Oct | 3 | Moderate |
| Nov | 2 | Moderate |
| Dec | 1 | Low |
Air quality in Ludlow in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Ludlow is worst in July — around 15 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 2.2× the cleanest month (November, 7 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 8 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 13 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 8 |
| Level | Good | Good | Good | Good | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Good | Good | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 8 | Good |
| Feb | 11 | Good |
| Mar | 12 | Good |
| Apr | 12 | Good |
| May | 13 | Moderate |
| Jun | 14 | Moderate |
| Jul | 15 | Moderate |
| Aug | 13 | Moderate |
| Sep | 11 | Good |
| Oct | 9 | Good |
| Nov | 7 | Good |
| Dec | 8 | Good |
Where is Ludlow?
Ludlow sits at 42.2°N, 72.5°W, 249 ft above sea level, in United States. The nearest listed city is North Chicopee, 6.8 mi away.
Topography around Ludlow
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 2, 10 and 50 miles of Ludlow.
Within 2 miles, the terrain around Ludlow has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 308 ft around an average of 259 ft above sea level; within 10 miles, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,106 ft; within 50 miles, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,425 ft.
The land around Ludlow is covered by trees (56%) and artificial surfaces (21%) within 2 miles, trees (74%) within 10 miles, and trees (91%) within 50 miles.
United States travel facts
- Power plugs
- Type A / B
- 120 V · 60 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 100% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $90,027
- 2025
- Happiness
- 6.8 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 98%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 5.8
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 12.7
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- High
- World Bank
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Ludlow (42.1601°, -72.4759°, elevation 249 ft), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).