Ibb weather in February
In February, Ibb sees average daytime highs of 24°C and overnight lows near 11°C, with 13 mm of rain across 2.4 wet days and about 11.5 hours of daylight. It is the 9th-warmest and 9th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 24°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 66% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Ibb's 3rd-clearest and 4th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Ibb's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 24°
- 9th warmest
- Overnight low
- 11°
- 4th coldest
- Rainfall
- 13 mm
- 2.4 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 30 min
- 6:32 AM – 6:04 PM
- Cloud cover
- 31%
- 3rd clearest
- Wind
- 6 km/h
- 4th windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.17 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 8.6
- out of 10
Ibb is city in Yemen.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 24°C through the month.
A typical February day in Ibb reaches about 24°C in the afternoon and slips back to 11°C overnight — a 13°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 21°C and 26°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 1°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 |
| Avg low (°C) | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 23 | 11 |
| 2 | 23 | 11 |
| 3 | 23 | 11 |
| 4 | 23 | 11 |
| 5 | 23 | 11 |
| 6 | 23 | 11 |
| 7 | 23 | 11 |
| 8 | 23 | 11 |
| 9 | 23 | 11 |
| 10 | 23 | 11 |
| 11 | 24 | 11 |
| 12 | 24 | 11 |
| 13 | 24 | 11 |
| 14 | 24 | 11 |
| 15 | 24 | 11 |
| 16 | 24 | 11 |
| 17 | 24 | 11 |
| 18 | 24 | 11 |
| 19 | 24 | 11 |
| 20 | 24 | 11 |
| 21 | 24 | 11 |
| 22 | 24 | 11 |
| 23 | 24 | 11 |
| 24 | 24 | 12 |
| 25 | 24 | 12 |
| 26 | 24 | 12 |
| 27 | 24 | 12 |
| 28 | 24 | 12 |
Ibb weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 9th-warmest and 9th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 22° / 10° | 12 | 3.1 | 11.3 | 8.3 |
| Feb | 24° / 11° | 13 | 2.4 | 11.5 | 8.6 |
| Mar | 25° / 12° | 40 | 6.7 | 11.9 | 7.9 |
| Apr | 25° / 14° | 62 | 8.5 | 12.3 | 7.3 |
| May | 26° / 15° | 87 | 13.6 | 12.6 | 6.2 |
| Jun | 27° / 16° | 85 | 17.6 | 12.8 | 5.4 |
| Jul | 25° / 16° | 157 | 24.5 | 12.7 | 4.7 |
| Aug | 24° / 16° | 241 | 29.5 | 12.5 | 4.1 |
| Sep | 25° / 14° | 113 | 17.7 | 12.1 | 5.8 |
| Oct | 24° / 12° | 27 | 5 | 11.7 | 8.3 |
| Nov | 23° / 10° | 7 | 1.4 | 11.4 | 8.8 |
| Dec | 22° / 10° | 5 | 1.4 | 11.2 | 8.7 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 66% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 17% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 16%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 85 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 83 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 84 | 84 | 84 |
| Cloudier (%) | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 85 | 15 |
| 2 | 84 | 16 |
| 3 | 84 | 16 |
| 4 | 84 | 16 |
| 5 | 83 | 17 |
| 6 | 82 | 18 |
| 7 | 82 | 18 |
| 8 | 82 | 18 |
| 9 | 82 | 18 |
| 10 | 83 | 17 |
| 11 | 82 | 18 |
| 12 | 82 | 18 |
| 13 | 82 | 18 |
| 14 | 83 | 17 |
| 15 | 83 | 17 |
| 16 | 83 | 17 |
| 17 | 84 | 16 |
| 18 | 84 | 16 |
| 19 | 84 | 16 |
| 20 | 85 | 15 |
| 21 | 85 | 15 |
| 22 | 85 | 15 |
| 23 | 85 | 15 |
| 24 | 85 | 15 |
| 25 | 85 | 15 |
| 26 | 84 | 16 |
| 27 | 84 | 16 |
| 28 | 84 | 16 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Ibb gets around 13 mm of rain over 2.4 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 10% and peaks near 13% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 13 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 8 |
| 2 | 8 |
| 3 | 8 |
| 4 | 8 |
| 5 | 9 |
| 6 | 9 |
| 7 | 9 |
| 8 | 9 |
| 9 | 9 |
| 10 | 9 |
| 11 | 9 |
| 12 | 9 |
| 13 | 9 |
| 14 | 9 |
| 15 | 9 |
| 16 | 9 |
| 17 | 9 |
| 18 | 9 |
| 19 | 9 |
| 20 | 9 |
| 21 | 10 |
| 22 | 10 |
| 23 | 10 |
| 24 | 11 |
| 25 | 12 |
| 26 | 12 |
| 27 | 13 |
| 28 | 13 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 98% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 97 | 97 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 95 |
| Comfortable (%) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 99 | 1 |
| 2 | 99 | 1 |
| 3 | 99 | 1 |
| 4 | 99 | 1 |
| 5 | 98 | 2 |
| 6 | 98 | 2 |
| 7 | 98 | 2 |
| 8 | 98 | 2 |
| 9 | 98 | 2 |
| 10 | 98 | 2 |
| 11 | 98 | 2 |
| 12 | 98 | 2 |
| 13 | 98 | 2 |
| 14 | 98 | 2 |
| 15 | 98 | 2 |
| 16 | 98 | 2 |
| 17 | 98 | 2 |
| 18 | 98 | 2 |
| 19 | 98 | 2 |
| 20 | 98 | 2 |
| 21 | 98 | 2 |
| 22 | 98 | 2 |
| 23 | 97 | 3 |
| 24 | 97 | 3 |
| 25 | 96 | 4 |
| 26 | 96 | 4 |
| 27 | 96 | 4 |
| 28 | 95 | 5 |
Wind in February
Winds average 6 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 6 km/h on the calmest days to 6 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | calm |
| 2 | 6 | calm |
| 3 | 6 | calm |
| 4 | 6 | calm |
| 5 | 6 | calm |
| 6 | 6 | calm |
| 7 | 6 | calm |
| 8 | 6 | calm |
| 9 | 6 | calm |
| 10 | 6 | calm |
| 11 | 6 | calm |
| 12 | 6 | calm |
| 13 | 6 | calm |
| 14 | 6 | calm |
| 15 | 6 | calm |
| 16 | 6 | calm |
| 17 | 6 | calm |
| 18 | 6 | calm |
| 19 | 6 | calm |
| 20 | 6 | calm |
| 21 | 6 | calm |
| 22 | 6 | calm |
| 23 | 6 | calm |
| 24 | 6 | calm |
| 25 | 6 | calm |
| 26 | 6 | calm |
| 27 | 6 | calm |
| 28 | 6 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 24 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 18 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:35 AM to 6:26 AM, and sunset from 5:58 PM to 6:08 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 | 11.7 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:30 | 6:30 | 6:29 | 6:29 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:26 | 6:26 |
| Sunset (PM) | 5:58 | 5:59 | 5:59 | 6:00 | 6:00 | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:08 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.4 | 6:35 | 5:58 |
| 2 | 11.4 | 6:35 | 5:59 |
| 3 | 11.4 | 6:35 | 5:59 |
| 4 | 11.4 | 6:35 | 6:00 |
| 5 | 11.4 | 6:35 | 6:00 |
| 6 | 11.4 | 6:34 | 6:01 |
| 7 | 11.4 | 6:34 | 6:01 |
| 8 | 11.5 | 6:34 | 6:01 |
| 9 | 11.5 | 6:34 | 6:02 |
| 10 | 11.5 | 6:33 | 6:02 |
| 11 | 11.5 | 6:33 | 6:03 |
| 12 | 11.5 | 6:33 | 6:03 |
| 13 | 11.5 | 6:32 | 6:03 |
| 14 | 11.5 | 6:32 | 6:04 |
| 15 | 11.5 | 6:32 | 6:04 |
| 16 | 11.5 | 6:31 | 6:04 |
| 17 | 11.6 | 6:31 | 6:05 |
| 18 | 11.6 | 6:31 | 6:05 |
| 19 | 11.6 | 6:30 | 6:05 |
| 20 | 11.6 | 6:30 | 6:06 |
| 21 | 11.6 | 6:29 | 6:06 |
| 22 | 11.6 | 6:29 | 6:06 |
| 23 | 11.6 | 6:28 | 6:06 |
| 24 | 11.6 | 6:28 | 6:07 |
| 25 | 11.7 | 6:27 | 6:07 |
| 26 | 11.7 | 6:27 | 6:07 |
| 27 | 11.7 | 6:26 | 6:07 |
| 28 | 11.7 | 6:26 | 6:08 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.17 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.44 kWh/m² to a high of 6.74 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.17 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 5 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 6 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 7 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 8 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.4 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Ibb
None of Ibb's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Ibb's monsoon runs July–September, when most of the year's rain falls.
Ibb sees seasonal dust haze (June–August), heaviest in July.
Is February a good time to visit Ibb?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit Ibb for general sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Ibb in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Ibb sees daytime highs around 24°C and nights near 11°C. Pack sun protection. Worth having: light clothes.
UV index in Ibb in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 12 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Ibb peaks around April 11 at about 14 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 15 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 10 | 12 | 14 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 8 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 10 | Extreme |
| Feb | 12 | Extreme |
| Mar | 14 | Extreme |
| Apr | 14 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 12 | Extreme |
| Sep | 12 | Extreme |
| Oct | 11 | Extreme |
| Nov | 9 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in Ibb in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Ibb is worst in July — around 54 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), about 1.9× the cleanest month (December, 28 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 30 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 42 | 52 | 54 | 44 | 44 | 35 | 28 | 28 |
| Level | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 30 | Moderate |
| Feb | 36 | Poor |
| Mar | 37 | Poor |
| Apr | 38 | Poor |
| May | 42 | Poor |
| Jun | 52 | Poor |
| Jul | 54 | Poor |
| Aug | 44 | Poor |
| Sep | 44 | Poor |
| Oct | 35 | Moderate |
| Nov | 28 | Moderate |
| Dec | 28 | Moderate |
Where is Ibb?
Ibb sits at 14.0°N, 44.2°E, 1,931 m above sea level, in Yemen. The nearest listed city is Dhī as Sufāl, 16 km away.
Topography around Ibb
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Ibb.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Ibb has large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,132 m around an average of 2,056 m above sea level; within 16 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,895 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,089 m.
The land around Ibb is covered by cropland (44%) and artificial surfaces (33%) within 3 km, cropland (55%) and shrubs (28%) within 16 km, and shrubs (45%), grassland (22%) and cropland (20%) within 80 km.
Yemen travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type A / D / G
- 240 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 7% of US
- price level, 2013
- GDP per capita
- $634
- 2018
- Happiness
- 3.5 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Homicide rate
- 5.8
- per 100k, 2013
- Road deaths
- 29.4
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 402
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Ibb (13.9667°, 44.1833°, elevation 1,931 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).