Malemba weather in February
In February, Malemba sees average daytime highs of 27°C and overnight lows near 18°C, with 229 mm of rain across 24 wet days and about 12.3 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 27°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February, and the air most often feels muggy.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 30 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Malemba's 10th-clearest and 10th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Malemba's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 27°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 18°
- 10th coldest
- Rainfall
- 229 mm
- 24 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 18 min
- 6:26 AM – 6:47 PM
- Cloud cover
- 87%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 5 km/h
- 10th windiest
- Solar energy
- 4.97 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 3.9
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 27°C through the month.
A typical February day in Malemba reaches about 27°C in the afternoon and slips back to 18°C overnight — a 8°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 24°C and 29°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 |
| Avg low (°C) | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 26 | 18 |
| 2 | 26 | 18 |
| 3 | 26 | 18 |
| 4 | 26 | 18 |
| 5 | 27 | 18 |
| 6 | 27 | 18 |
| 7 | 27 | 18 |
| 8 | 27 | 18 |
| 9 | 27 | 18 |
| 10 | 27 | 18 |
| 11 | 27 | 18 |
| 12 | 27 | 18 |
| 13 | 27 | 18 |
| 14 | 27 | 18 |
| 15 | 27 | 18 |
| 16 | 27 | 18 |
| 17 | 27 | 18 |
| 18 | 27 | 18 |
| 19 | 27 | 18 |
| 20 | 27 | 18 |
| 21 | 27 | 18 |
| 22 | 27 | 18 |
| 23 | 27 | 18 |
| 24 | 27 | 18 |
| 25 | 27 | 18 |
| 26 | 27 | 18 |
| 27 | 27 | 18 |
| 28 | 27 | 18 |
How February really feels in Malemba
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
February sits comfortably in between — no days that feel dangerously hot or drop to a hard freeze once humidity and wind are folded in.
Malemba weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 26° / 18° | 283 | 27.7 | 12.5 | 3.8 |
| Feb | 27° / 18° | 229 | 24 | 12.3 | 3.9 |
| Mar | 27° / 18° | 204 | 25.3 | 12.1 | 4.1 |
| Apr | 28° / 18° | 66 | 11.6 | 11.8 | 5.7 |
| May | 30° / 18° | 3 | 0.9 | 11.5 | 6.5 |
| Jun | 29° / 16° | 0 | 0 | 11.4 | 7.2 |
| Jul | 29° / 16° | 0 | 0 | 11.5 | 7.2 |
| Aug | 31° / 18° | 1 | 0.3 | 11.7 | 5.6 |
| Sep | 32° / 19° | 15 | 3.3 | 11.9 | 4.6 |
| Oct | 30° / 19° | 83 | 14.9 | 12.2 | 4.2 |
| Nov | 28° / 18° | 175 | 24.6 | 12.5 | 3.9 |
| Dec | 26° / 18° | 248 | 27.4 | 12.6 | 3.8 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 6% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 93%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Cloudier (%) | 97 | 97 | 97 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 95 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3 | 97 |
| 2 | 3 | 97 |
| 3 | 3 | 97 |
| 4 | 4 | 96 |
| 5 | 4 | 96 |
| 6 | 4 | 96 |
| 7 | 5 | 95 |
| 8 | 6 | 94 |
| 9 | 6 | 94 |
| 10 | 6 | 94 |
| 11 | 7 | 93 |
| 12 | 7 | 93 |
| 13 | 7 | 93 |
| 14 | 8 | 92 |
| 15 | 8 | 92 |
| 16 | 9 | 91 |
| 17 | 9 | 91 |
| 18 | 9 | 91 |
| 19 | 9 | 91 |
| 20 | 9 | 91 |
| 21 | 9 | 91 |
| 22 | 9 | 91 |
| 23 | 9 | 91 |
| 24 | 10 | 90 |
| 25 | 10 | 90 |
| 26 | 10 | 90 |
| 27 | 10 | 90 |
| 28 | 10 | 90 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Malemba gets around 229 mm of rain over 24 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 86% and peaks near 88% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 88 | 88 | 88 | 87 | 87 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 87 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 88 |
| 2 | 88 |
| 3 | 88 |
| 4 | 87 |
| 5 | 87 |
| 6 | 86 |
| 7 | 86 |
| 8 | 86 |
| 9 | 85 |
| 10 | 85 |
| 11 | 85 |
| 12 | 84 |
| 13 | 84 |
| 14 | 84 |
| 15 | 84 |
| 16 | 85 |
| 17 | 85 |
| 18 | 85 |
| 19 | 85 |
| 20 | 86 |
| 21 | 86 |
| 22 | 86 |
| 23 | 86 |
| 24 | 87 |
| 25 | 87 |
| 26 | 87 |
| 27 | 87 |
| 28 | 87 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels muggy — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the muggy band about 75% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 75% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humid (%) | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 28 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Muggy (%) | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 74 | 74 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 79 |
| Humid (%) | Muggy (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 25 | 75 |
| 2 | 25 | 75 |
| 3 | 25 | 75 |
| 4 | 25 | 75 |
| 5 | 26 | 74 |
| 6 | 26 | 74 |
| 7 | 27 | 73 |
| 8 | 27 | 73 |
| 9 | 27 | 73 |
| 10 | 28 | 72 |
| 11 | 28 | 72 |
| 12 | 27 | 73 |
| 13 | 27 | 73 |
| 14 | 27 | 73 |
| 15 | 26 | 74 |
| 16 | 26 | 74 |
| 17 | 25 | 75 |
| 18 | 25 | 75 |
| 19 | 24 | 76 |
| 20 | 24 | 76 |
| 21 | 23 | 77 |
| 22 | 23 | 77 |
| 23 | 22 | 78 |
| 24 | 22 | 78 |
| 25 | 22 | 78 |
| 26 | 21 | 79 |
| 27 | 21 | 79 |
| 28 | 21 | 79 |
Wind in February
Winds average 5 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 5 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 5 | calm |
| 9 | 5 | calm |
| 10 | 5 | calm |
| 11 | 5 | calm |
| 12 | 5 | calm |
| 13 | 5 | calm |
| 14 | 5 | calm |
| 15 | 5 | calm |
| 16 | 5 | calm |
| 17 | 5 | calm |
| 18 | 5 | calm |
| 19 | 5 | calm |
| 20 | 5 | calm |
| 21 | 5 | calm |
| 22 | 5 | calm |
| 23 | 5 | calm |
| 24 | 5 | calm |
| 25 | 5 | calm |
| 26 | 5 | calm |
| 27 | 5 | calm |
| 28 | 5 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 30 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days shrink by about 18 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:22 AM to 6:28 AM, and sunset from 6:49 PM to 6:42 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.5 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:28 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:47 | 6:47 | 6:47 | 6:47 | 6:46 | 6:46 | 6:46 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:44 | 6:44 | 6:44 | 6:43 | 6:43 | 6:42 | 6:42 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.5 | 6:22 | 6:49 |
| 2 | 12.4 | 6:22 | 6:49 |
| 3 | 12.4 | 6:23 | 6:49 |
| 4 | 12.4 | 6:23 | 6:49 |
| 5 | 12.4 | 6:23 | 6:49 |
| 6 | 12.4 | 6:24 | 6:48 |
| 7 | 12.4 | 6:24 | 6:48 |
| 8 | 12.4 | 6:24 | 6:48 |
| 9 | 12.4 | 6:25 | 6:48 |
| 10 | 12.4 | 6:25 | 6:48 |
| 11 | 12.4 | 6:25 | 6:48 |
| 12 | 12.4 | 6:25 | 6:47 |
| 13 | 12.4 | 6:26 | 6:47 |
| 14 | 12.3 | 6:26 | 6:47 |
| 15 | 12.3 | 6:26 | 6:47 |
| 16 | 12.3 | 6:26 | 6:46 |
| 17 | 12.3 | 6:27 | 6:46 |
| 18 | 12.3 | 6:27 | 6:46 |
| 19 | 12.3 | 6:27 | 6:45 |
| 20 | 12.3 | 6:27 | 6:45 |
| 21 | 12.3 | 6:27 | 6:45 |
| 22 | 12.3 | 6:28 | 6:44 |
| 23 | 12.3 | 6:28 | 6:44 |
| 24 | 12.3 | 6:28 | 6:44 |
| 25 | 12.3 | 6:28 | 6:43 |
| 26 | 12.2 | 6:28 | 6:43 |
| 27 | 12.2 | 6:28 | 6:42 |
| 28 | 12.2 | 6:28 | 6:42 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 4.97 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.71 kWh/m² to a high of 6.32 kWh/m² in September across the year — February's 4.97 kWh/m² sits near the bottom.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 5.2 | 5.2 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 2 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 3 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 4 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 5 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 6 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 7 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 8 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 9 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 10 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 11 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 12 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 13 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 14 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 15 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 16 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 17 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 18 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 19 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 20 | 5.0 | Bright |
| 21 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 22 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 23 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 24 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 25 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 26 | 5.1 | Bright |
| 27 | 5.2 | Bright |
| 28 | 5.2 | Bright |
Hazard calendar for Malemba
In February, Malemba sits inside its monsoon season. The full year is below, with each hazard's peak months called out.
Malemba's monsoon runs November–March, when most of the year's rain falls.
Is February a good time to visit Malemba?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Malemba.
What to pack for Malemba in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Malemba sees daytime highs around 27°C and nights near 18°C. Pack rain gear. Worth having: light clothes and sun protection. About 24 days see rain.
UV index in Malemba in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 15 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Malemba peaks around March 11 at about 15 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near July 19 at about 9 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 15 | 15 | 15 | 13 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 13 | 12 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 15 | Extreme |
| Feb | 15 | Extreme |
| Mar | 15 | Extreme |
| Apr | 13 | Extreme |
| May | 10 | Very high |
| Jun | 9 | Very high |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 9 | Very high |
| Sep | 11 | Extreme |
| Oct | 13 | Extreme |
| Nov | 12 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in Malemba in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Malemba is worst in August — around 144 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 17.7× the cleanest month (April, 8 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 12 | 12 | 9 | 8 | 15 | 52 | 88 | 144 | 108 | 27 | 13 | 9 |
| Level | Good | Good | Good | Good | Moderate | Poor | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Moderate | Moderate | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 12 | Good |
| Feb | 12 | Good |
| Mar | 9 | Good |
| Apr | 8 | Good |
| May | 15 | Moderate |
| Jun | 52 | Poor |
| Jul | 88 | Unhealthy |
| Aug | 144 | Unhealthy |
| Sep | 108 | Unhealthy |
| Oct | 27 | Moderate |
| Nov | 13 | Moderate |
| Dec | 9 | Good |
Where is Malemba?
Malemba sits at 10.4°S, 24.5°E, 1,092 m above sea level, in Democratic Republic of the Congo. The nearest listed city is Kolwezi, 107 km away.
Topography around Malemba
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Malemba.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Malemba has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 146 m around an average of 1,092 m above sea level; within 16 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 382 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 627 m.
The land around Malemba is covered by trees (86%) within 3 km, trees (88%) within 16 km, and trees (77%) within 80 km.
Democratic Republic of the Congo travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / E
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 42% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $807
- 2025
- Happiness
- 3.8 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 12%
- of population, 2024
- Road deaths
- 34.9
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 400
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Malemba (-10.3781°, 24.5452°, elevation 1,092 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).