Banos weather in September
In September, Banos sees average daytime highs of 14°C and overnight lows near 5°C, with 138 mm of rain across 25.9 wet days and about 12 hours of daylight. It is the 9th-warmest and 11th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 14°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 2% of the time in September, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 12 hours at the start of September to 12 hours by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, September is Banos's 2nd-clearest and 2nd-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Banos's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 14°
- 9th warmest
- Overnight low
- 5°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 138 mm
- 25.9 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 hours
- 6:08 AM – 6:08 PM
- Cloud cover
- 81%
- 2nd clearest
- Wind
- 6 km/h
- 2nd windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.12 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 2.5
- out of 10
Temperature in September
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 14°C through the month.
A typical September day in Banos reaches about 14°C in the afternoon and slips back to 5°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 12°C and 16°C. Set against its neighbours, September runs about 1°C warmer than August and about 1°C cooler than October.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Avg low (°C) | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 14 | 4 |
| 2 | 14 | 4 |
| 3 | 14 | 4 |
| 4 | 14 | 4 |
| 5 | 14 | 4 |
| 6 | 14 | 4 |
| 7 | 14 | 4 |
| 8 | 14 | 4 |
| 9 | 14 | 4 |
| 10 | 14 | 4 |
| 11 | 14 | 4 |
| 12 | 14 | 4 |
| 13 | 14 | 4 |
| 14 | 14 | 5 |
| 15 | 14 | 5 |
| 16 | 14 | 5 |
| 17 | 14 | 5 |
| 18 | 14 | 5 |
| 19 | 14 | 5 |
| 20 | 14 | 5 |
| 21 | 14 | 5 |
| 22 | 14 | 5 |
| 23 | 14 | 5 |
| 24 | 14 | 5 |
| 25 | 14 | 5 |
| 26 | 15 | 5 |
| 27 | 15 | 5 |
| 28 | 15 | 5 |
| 29 | 15 | 5 |
| 30 | 15 | 5 |
Banos weather by month
How September compares with the rest of the year at a glance. September is the 9th-warmest and 11th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 15° / 7° | 248 | 29.7 | 12.1 | 2.5 |
| Feb | 15° / 7° | 258 | 26.9 | 12 | 2.5 |
| Mar | 16° / 7° | 303 | 30.5 | 12 | 2.4 |
| Apr | 15° / 7° | 264 | 29.6 | 12 | 2.4 |
| May | 15° / 6° | 215 | 30.1 | 11.9 | 2.3 |
| Jun | 14° / 5° | 182 | 27.7 | 11.9 | 2.2 |
| Jul | 13° / 4° | 167 | 27.5 | 11.9 | 2.1 |
| Aug | 13° / 4° | 126 | 25.5 | 12 | 2.3 |
| Sep | 14° / 5° | 138 | 25.9 | 12 | 2.5 |
| Oct | 15° / 6° | 226 | 29.7 | 12 | 2.5 |
| Nov | 16° / 6° | 258 | 28.7 | 12.1 | 2.5 |
| Dec | 15° / 7° | 274 | 30.3 | 12.1 | 2.4 |
Cloud cover in September
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 2% of the time in September.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 10% of September, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 88%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 |
| Cloudier (%) | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 16 | 84 |
| 2 | 16 | 84 |
| 3 | 16 | 84 |
| 4 | 16 | 84 |
| 5 | 16 | 84 |
| 6 | 17 | 83 |
| 7 | 16 | 84 |
| 8 | 16 | 84 |
| 9 | 16 | 84 |
| 10 | 15 | 85 |
| 11 | 14 | 86 |
| 12 | 14 | 86 |
| 13 | 13 | 87 |
| 14 | 13 | 87 |
| 15 | 12 | 88 |
| 16 | 12 | 88 |
| 17 | 12 | 88 |
| 18 | 11 | 89 |
| 19 | 10 | 90 |
| 20 | 10 | 90 |
| 21 | 10 | 90 |
| 22 | 9 | 91 |
| 23 | 9 | 91 |
| 24 | 8 | 92 |
| 25 | 8 | 92 |
| 26 | 8 | 92 |
| 27 | 8 | 92 |
| 28 | 8 | 92 |
| 29 | 7 | 93 |
| 30 | 7 | 93 |
Chance of precipitation in September
Banos gets around 138 mm of rain over 25.9 wet days in September. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 86% and peaks near 94% on the wettest days. The odds climb toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 94 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 83 |
| 2 | 83 |
| 3 | 83 |
| 4 | 83 |
| 5 | 83 |
| 6 | 83 |
| 7 | 83 |
| 8 | 83 |
| 9 | 83 |
| 10 | 83 |
| 11 | 83 |
| 12 | 83 |
| 13 | 83 |
| 14 | 84 |
| 15 | 84 |
| 16 | 85 |
| 17 | 85 |
| 18 | 86 |
| 19 | 86 |
| 20 | 87 |
| 21 | 88 |
| 22 | 89 |
| 23 | 90 |
| 24 | 90 |
| 25 | 91 |
| 26 | 92 |
| 27 | 92 |
| 28 | 93 |
| 29 | 94 |
| 30 | 94 |
Humidity in September
Most of September feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, September lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
| 29 | 100 |
| 30 | 100 |
Wind in September
Winds average 6 km/h in September.
Across September, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 6 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | calm |
| 2 | 6 | calm |
| 3 | 6 | calm |
| 4 | 6 | calm |
| 5 | 6 | calm |
| 6 | 6 | calm |
| 7 | 6 | calm |
| 8 | 6 | calm |
| 9 | 6 | calm |
| 10 | 6 | calm |
| 11 | 6 | calm |
| 12 | 6 | calm |
| 13 | 6 | calm |
| 14 | 6 | calm |
| 15 | 6 | calm |
| 16 | 6 | calm |
| 17 | 6 | calm |
| 18 | 6 | calm |
| 19 | 6 | calm |
| 20 | 6 | calm |
| 21 | 6 | calm |
| 22 | 6 | calm |
| 23 | 6 | calm |
| 24 | 5 | calm |
| 25 | 5 | calm |
| 26 | 5 | calm |
| 27 | 5 | calm |
| 28 | 5 | calm |
| 29 | 5 | calm |
| 30 | 5 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in September
Daylight runs from about 12 hours at the start of September to 12 hours by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 0 minutes over September. Sunrise moves from 6:14 AM to 6:03 AM, and sunset from 6:13 PM to 6:03 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:14 | 6:14 | 6:13 | 6:13 | 6:13 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:09 | 6:09 | 6:09 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:13 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:09 | 6:09 | 6:09 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:03 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.0 | 6:14 | 6:13 |
| 2 | 12.0 | 6:14 | 6:12 |
| 3 | 12.0 | 6:13 | 6:12 |
| 4 | 12.0 | 6:13 | 6:12 |
| 5 | 12.0 | 6:13 | 6:11 |
| 6 | 12.0 | 6:12 | 6:11 |
| 7 | 12.0 | 6:12 | 6:11 |
| 8 | 12.0 | 6:12 | 6:10 |
| 9 | 12.0 | 6:11 | 6:10 |
| 10 | 12.0 | 6:11 | 6:10 |
| 11 | 12.0 | 6:10 | 6:09 |
| 12 | 12.0 | 6:10 | 6:09 |
| 13 | 12.0 | 6:09 | 6:09 |
| 14 | 12.0 | 6:09 | 6:08 |
| 15 | 12.0 | 6:09 | 6:08 |
| 16 | 12.0 | 6:08 | 6:08 |
| 17 | 12.0 | 6:08 | 6:07 |
| 18 | 12.0 | 6:07 | 6:07 |
| 19 | 12.0 | 6:07 | 6:07 |
| 20 | 12.0 | 6:07 | 6:06 |
| 21 | 12.0 | 6:06 | 6:06 |
| 22 | 12.0 | 6:06 | 6:06 |
| 23 | 12.0 | 6:05 | 6:05 |
| 24 | 12.0 | 6:05 | 6:05 |
| 25 | 12.0 | 6:05 | 6:05 |
| 26 | 12.0 | 6:04 | 6:05 |
| 27 | 12.0 | 6:04 | 6:04 |
| 28 | 12.0 | 6:03 | 6:04 |
| 29 | 12.0 | 6:03 | 6:04 |
| 30 | 12.0 | 6:03 | 6:03 |
Solar energy in September
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in September, about 6.12 kWh/m² — the sunniest month for solar.
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.78 kWh/m² to a high of 6.12 kWh/m² in September across the year — September's 6.12 kWh/m² sits near the top of that range.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 |
| Level | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 2 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 3 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 5 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 29 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 30 | 6.1 | Intense |
Is September a good time to visit Banos?
Our two travel scores rate September for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
September is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Banos.
What to pack for Banos in September
From September's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In September, Banos sees daytime highs around 14°C and nights near 5°C. Pack rain gear and sun protection. Worth having: a warm layer. About 26 days see rain.
UV index in Banos in September
Clear-sky midday UV in September peaks around 15 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Banos peaks around February 21 at about 19 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near November 19 at about 13 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 17 | 19 | 19 | 15 | 16 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 13 | 14 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 17 | Extreme |
| Feb | 19 | Extreme |
| Mar | 19 | Extreme |
| Apr | 15 | Extreme |
| May | 16 | Extreme |
| Jun | 13 | Extreme |
| Jul | 13 | Extreme |
| Aug | 14 | Extreme |
| Sep | 15 | Extreme |
| Oct | 16 | Extreme |
| Nov | 13 | Extreme |
| Dec | 14 | Extreme |
Air quality in Banos in September
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where September falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Banos is worst in September — around 21 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 1.7× the cleanest month (July, 13 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 19 | 21 | 21 | 19 | 16 | 13 | 13 | 17 | 21 | 20 | 21 | 18 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 19 | Moderate |
| Feb | 21 | Moderate |
| Mar | 21 | Moderate |
| Apr | 19 | Moderate |
| May | 16 | Moderate |
| Jun | 13 | Moderate |
| Jul | 13 | Moderate |
| Aug | 17 | Moderate |
| Sep | 21 | Moderate |
| Oct | 20 | Moderate |
| Nov | 21 | Moderate |
| Dec | 18 | Moderate |
Where is Banos?
Banos sits at 1.4°S, 78.4°W, 0 m above sea level, in Ecuador. The nearest listed city is Pelileo, 15 km away.
Topography around Banos
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Banos.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Banos has large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,087 m around an average of 2,126 m above sea level; within 16 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,654 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 5,817 m.
The land around Banos is covered by trees (67%) and grassland (22%) within 3 km, trees (73%) within 16 km, and trees (51%) and grassland (30%) within 80 km.
Ecuador travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type A / B
- 120 V · 60 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 43% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $7,125
- 2025
- Happiness
- 6.1 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 70%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 45.7
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 20.1
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 466
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Banos (-1.397°, -78.4229°, elevation 0 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).