Mashad weather in February
In February, Mashad sees average daytime highs of 7°C and overnight lows near -3°C, with 43 mm of precipitation across 8.2 wet days and about 10.6 hours of daylight. It is the 11th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 6°C in the first days to 9°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 42% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 10 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Mashad's 10th-clearest and 8th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Mashad's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 7°
- 11th warmest
- Overnight low
- -3°
- 2nd coldest
- Precipitation
- 43 mm
- 8.2 wet days
- Daylight
- 10 h 36 min
- 6:27 AM – 5:05 PM
- Cloud cover
- 49%
- 10th clearest
- Wind
- 7 km/h
- 8th windiest
- Solar energy
- 3.98 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 1.0
- out of 10
Mashad is capital city of Razavi Khorasan Province, and second largest city in Iran.
- Density
- 7,034/km²
- people per km²
- Founded
- ~818 CE
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 6°C in the first days to 9°C by the end.
A typical February day in Mashad reaches about 7°C in the afternoon and slips back to -3°C overnight — a 10°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between -0°C and 14°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 5°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Avg low (°C) | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -3 | -2 | -2 | -2 | -2 | -2 | -2 | -1 | -1 | -1 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | -4 |
| 2 | 6 | -4 |
| 3 | 6 | -4 |
| 4 | 6 | -4 |
| 5 | 6 | -4 |
| 6 | 6 | -4 |
| 7 | 6 | -4 |
| 8 | 6 | -4 |
| 9 | 6 | -4 |
| 10 | 6 | -4 |
| 11 | 7 | -4 |
| 12 | 7 | -3 |
| 13 | 7 | -3 |
| 14 | 7 | -3 |
| 15 | 7 | -3 |
| 16 | 7 | -3 |
| 17 | 7 | -3 |
| 18 | 7 | -3 |
| 19 | 8 | -3 |
| 20 | 8 | -2 |
| 21 | 8 | -2 |
| 22 | 8 | -2 |
| 23 | 8 | -2 |
| 24 | 9 | -2 |
| 25 | 9 | -2 |
| 26 | 9 | -1 |
| 27 | 9 | -1 |
| 28 | 9 | -1 |
How February really feels in Mashad
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 28 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is cold — wind chill drags the overnight "feels like" below the raw low.
Mashad weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 11th-warmest and 3rd-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Snow days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 5° / -4° | 27 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 9.8 | 0.2 |
| Feb | 7° / -3° | 43 | 8.2 | 5.6 | 10.6 | 1.0 |
| Mar | 12° / 1° | 65 | 10.4 | 3.8 | 11.7 | 3.3 |
| Apr | 19° / 7° | 54 | 10.1 | 0.8 | 12.9 | 6.0 |
| May | 24° / 12° | 34 | 7.4 | 0.1 | 13.9 | 7.5 |
| Jun | 29° / 16° | 7 | 2.2 | 0 | 14.4 | 6.9 |
| Jul | 32° / 18° | 2 | 0.6 | 0 | 14.2 | 5.8 |
| Aug | 31° / 17° | 2 | 0.4 | 0 | 13.4 | 6.6 |
| Sep | 27° / 13° | 2 | 0.5 | 0 | 12.2 | 8.9 |
| Oct | 21° / 7° | 9 | 1.9 | 0.1 | 11.1 | 8.3 |
| Nov | 13° / 2° | 20 | 4.3 | 1.6 | 10.1 | 4.4 |
| Dec | 8° / -2° | 20 | 4.2 | 3.2 | 9.6 | 1.5 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 42% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 17% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 41%. Skies tend to cloud over as the month goes on.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 64 | 64 | 64 | 63 | 63 | 62 | 62 | 61 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 59 | 59 | 58 | 58 | 58 | 58 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 |
| Cloudier (%) | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 42 | 42 | 42 | 42 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 64 | 36 |
| 2 | 64 | 36 |
| 3 | 64 | 36 |
| 4 | 63 | 37 |
| 5 | 63 | 37 |
| 6 | 62 | 38 |
| 7 | 62 | 38 |
| 8 | 61 | 39 |
| 9 | 60 | 40 |
| 10 | 60 | 40 |
| 11 | 60 | 40 |
| 12 | 59 | 41 |
| 13 | 59 | 41 |
| 14 | 58 | 42 |
| 15 | 58 | 42 |
| 16 | 58 | 42 |
| 17 | 58 | 42 |
| 18 | 57 | 43 |
| 19 | 57 | 43 |
| 20 | 57 | 43 |
| 21 | 57 | 43 |
| 22 | 57 | 43 |
| 23 | 57 | 43 |
| 24 | 57 | 43 |
| 25 | 57 | 43 |
| 26 | 57 | 43 |
| 27 | 57 | 43 |
| 28 | 57 | 43 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Mashad gets around 43 mm of rain and snow over 8.2 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable precipitation averages around 29% and peaks near 32% on the wettest days, and about 6 days bring snow. The odds climb toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 25 | 25 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 |
| Snow chance (%) | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 18 |
| Rain chance (%) | Snow chance (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 25 | 18 |
| 2 | 25 | 18 |
| 3 | 25 | 19 |
| 4 | 25 | 19 |
| 5 | 26 | 19 |
| 6 | 26 | 19 |
| 7 | 26 | 20 |
| 8 | 27 | 20 |
| 9 | 27 | 20 |
| 10 | 27 | 21 |
| 11 | 28 | 21 |
| 12 | 28 | 21 |
| 13 | 28 | 21 |
| 14 | 29 | 21 |
| 15 | 29 | 20 |
| 16 | 30 | 20 |
| 17 | 30 | 20 |
| 18 | 30 | 20 |
| 19 | 30 | 20 |
| 20 | 31 | 20 |
| 21 | 31 | 20 |
| 22 | 31 | 20 |
| 23 | 32 | 19 |
| 24 | 32 | 19 |
| 25 | 32 | 19 |
| 26 | 32 | 19 |
| 27 | 32 | 19 |
| 28 | 32 | 18 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 7 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 7 km/h on the calmest days to 7 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 7 | calm |
| 2 | 7 | calm |
| 3 | 7 | calm |
| 4 | 7 | calm |
| 5 | 7 | calm |
| 6 | 7 | calm |
| 7 | 7 | calm |
| 8 | 7 | calm |
| 9 | 7 | calm |
| 10 | 7 | calm |
| 11 | 7 | calm |
| 12 | 7 | calm |
| 13 | 7 | calm |
| 14 | 7 | calm |
| 15 | 7 | calm |
| 16 | 7 | calm |
| 17 | 7 | calm |
| 18 | 7 | calm |
| 19 | 7 | calm |
| 20 | 7 | calm |
| 21 | 7 | calm |
| 22 | 7 | calm |
| 23 | 7 | calm |
| 24 | 7 | calm |
| 25 | 7 | calm |
| 26 | 7 | calm |
| 27 | 7 | calm |
| 28 | 7 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 10 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 06 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 54 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:40 AM to 6:12 AM, and sunset from 4:50 PM to 5:18 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.2 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.4 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.6 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 10.9 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 11.1 | 11.1 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:40 | 6:39 | 6:38 | 6:38 | 6:37 | 6:36 | 6:35 | 6:34 | 6:33 | 6:32 | 6:31 | 6:30 | 6:29 | 6:28 | 6:27 | 6:26 | 6:25 | 6:24 | 6:23 | 6:22 | 6:21 | 6:20 | 6:18 | 6:17 | 6:16 | 6:15 | 6:13 | 6:12 |
| Sunset (PM) | 4:50 | 4:51 | 4:52 | 4:54 | 4:55 | 4:56 | 4:57 | 4:58 | 4:59 | 5:00 | 5:01 | 5:02 | 5:03 | 5:04 | 5:05 | 5:06 | 5:07 | 5:08 | 5:09 | 5:10 | 5:11 | 5:12 | 5:13 | 5:14 | 5:15 | 5:16 | 5:17 | 5:18 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 10.2 | 6:40 | 4:50 |
| 2 | 10.2 | 6:39 | 4:51 |
| 3 | 10.2 | 6:38 | 4:52 |
| 4 | 10.3 | 6:38 | 4:54 |
| 5 | 10.3 | 6:37 | 4:55 |
| 6 | 10.3 | 6:36 | 4:56 |
| 7 | 10.4 | 6:35 | 4:57 |
| 8 | 10.4 | 6:34 | 4:58 |
| 9 | 10.4 | 6:33 | 4:59 |
| 10 | 10.5 | 6:32 | 5:00 |
| 11 | 10.5 | 6:31 | 5:01 |
| 12 | 10.5 | 6:30 | 5:02 |
| 13 | 10.6 | 6:29 | 5:03 |
| 14 | 10.6 | 6:28 | 5:04 |
| 15 | 10.6 | 6:27 | 5:05 |
| 16 | 10.7 | 6:26 | 5:06 |
| 17 | 10.7 | 6:25 | 5:07 |
| 18 | 10.7 | 6:24 | 5:08 |
| 19 | 10.8 | 6:23 | 5:09 |
| 20 | 10.8 | 6:22 | 5:10 |
| 21 | 10.8 | 6:21 | 5:11 |
| 22 | 10.9 | 6:20 | 5:12 |
| 23 | 10.9 | 6:18 | 5:13 |
| 24 | 10.9 | 6:17 | 5:14 |
| 25 | 11.0 | 6:16 | 5:15 |
| 26 | 11.0 | 6:15 | 5:16 |
| 27 | 11.1 | 6:13 | 5:17 |
| 28 | 11.1 | 6:12 | 5:18 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 3.98 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 2.7 kWh/m² to a high of 7.72 kWh/m² in July across the year — February's 3.98 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 3.5 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.4 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 3.5 | Moderate |
| 2 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 3 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 4 | 3.6 | Moderate |
| 5 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 6 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 7 | 3.7 | Moderate |
| 8 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 9 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 10 | 3.8 | Moderate |
| 11 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 12 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 13 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 14 | 3.9 | Moderate |
| 15 | 4.0 | Moderate |
| 16 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 17 | 4.0 | Bright |
| 18 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 19 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 20 | 4.1 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.2 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.3 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.4 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.4 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit Mashad?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Mashad.
What to pack for Mashad in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Mashad sees daytime highs around 7°C and nights near -3°C. Pack a warm layer and a heavy coat. Worth having: rain gear. About 8 days see rain.
UV index in Mashad in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 5 — enough to warrant sun protection. The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Mashad peaks around July 16 at about 11 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near January 11 at about 3 (moderate).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — in 10 months of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 3 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | High | High | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Very high | Very high | High | Moderate | Moderate |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 3 | Moderate |
| Feb | 5 | Moderate |
| Mar | 6 | High |
| Apr | 7 | High |
| May | 8 | Very high |
| Jun | 10 | Very high |
| Jul | 11 | Extreme |
| Aug | 10 | Very high |
| Sep | 8 | Very high |
| Oct | 5 | High |
| Nov | 3 | Moderate |
| Dec | 3 | Moderate |
Air quality in Mashad in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Mashad is worst in May — around 33 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 1.6× the cleanest month (December, 20 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 21 | 23 | 29 | 33 | 33 | 27 | 28 | 26 | 32 | 28 | 22 | 20 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 21 | Moderate |
| Feb | 23 | Moderate |
| Mar | 29 | Moderate |
| Apr | 33 | Moderate |
| May | 33 | Moderate |
| Jun | 27 | Moderate |
| Jul | 28 | Moderate |
| Aug | 26 | Moderate |
| Sep | 32 | Moderate |
| Oct | 28 | Moderate |
| Nov | 22 | Moderate |
| Dec | 20 | Moderate |
Where is Mashad?
Mashad sits at 36.3°N, 59.6°E, 980 m above sea level, in Iran. The nearest listed city is Gorjī-ye Soflá, 12 km away.
Topography around Mashad
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Mashad.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Mashad has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 60 m around an average of 984 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 642 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,881 m.
The land around Mashad is covered by artificial surfaces (94%) within 3 km, bare terrain (32%), artificial surfaces (29%) and cropland (25%) within 16 km, and bare terrain (49%), grassland (27%) and cropland (21%) within 80 km.
Iran travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / F
- 220 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 352% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $3,924
- 2025
- Happiness
- 5.2 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 94%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 2.4
- per 100k, 2014
- Road deaths
- 21.5
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 492
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Mashad (36.2981°, 59.6057°, elevation 980 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).