San Martín Cuautlalpan weather in February
In February, San Martín Cuautlalpan sees average daytime highs of 19°C and overnight lows near 5°C, with 28 mm of rain across 5.9 wet days and about 11.3 hours of daylight. It is the 7th-warmest and 10th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 18°C in the first days to 20°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 57% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 06 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is San Martín Cuautlalpan's 1st-clearest and 3rd-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see San Martín Cuautlalpan's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 19°
- 7th warmest
- Overnight low
- 5°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 28 mm
- 5.9 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 18 min
- 7:09 AM – 6:30 PM
- Cloud cover
- 37%
- 1st clearest
- Wind
- 6 km/h
- 3rd windiest
- Solar energy
- 5.93 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 7.0
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 18°C in the first days to 20°C by the end.
A typical February day in San Martín Cuautlalpan reaches about 19°C in the afternoon and slips back to 5°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 16°C and 22°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 1°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Avg low (°C) | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 18 | 4 |
| 2 | 18 | 4 |
| 3 | 18 | 4 |
| 4 | 18 | 4 |
| 5 | 18 | 4 |
| 6 | 18 | 4 |
| 7 | 18 | 4 |
| 8 | 18 | 5 |
| 9 | 19 | 5 |
| 10 | 19 | 5 |
| 11 | 19 | 5 |
| 12 | 19 | 5 |
| 13 | 19 | 5 |
| 14 | 19 | 5 |
| 15 | 19 | 5 |
| 16 | 19 | 5 |
| 17 | 19 | 5 |
| 18 | 20 | 5 |
| 19 | 20 | 5 |
| 20 | 20 | 5 |
| 21 | 20 | 5 |
| 22 | 20 | 5 |
| 23 | 20 | 5 |
| 24 | 20 | 6 |
| 25 | 20 | 6 |
| 26 | 20 | 6 |
| 27 | 20 | 6 |
| 28 | 20 | 6 |
San Martín Cuautlalpan weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 7th-warmest and 10th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 17° / 4° | 28 | 5.3 | 11 | 6.5 |
| Feb | 19° / 5° | 28 | 5.9 | 11.3 | 7.0 |
| Mar | 20° / 6° | 53 | 9.8 | 11.9 | 6.7 |
| Apr | 21° / 7° | 97 | 13.9 | 12.4 | 6.0 |
| May | 21° / 8° | 166 | 19.1 | 12.9 | 5.2 |
| Jun | 20° / 9° | 274 | 23.3 | 13.1 | 4.2 |
| Jul | 19° / 9° | 276 | 26.7 | 13 | 3.7 |
| Aug | 19° / 9° | 286 | 26.8 | 12.7 | 3.7 |
| Sep | 19° / 9° | 274 | 24.7 | 12.1 | 3.8 |
| Oct | 19° / 7° | 135 | 16 | 11.6 | 5.2 |
| Nov | 18° / 5° | 49 | 8.2 | 11.1 | 6.4 |
| Dec | 18° / 4° | 19 | 3.9 | 10.9 | 6.8 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 57% of the time in February, the clearest month of the year.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 18% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 25%. Skies tend to open up as the month goes on.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 69 | 69 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 80 |
| Cloudier (%) | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 31 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 69 | 31 |
| 2 | 69 | 31 |
| 3 | 68 | 32 |
| 4 | 68 | 32 |
| 5 | 68 | 32 |
| 6 | 68 | 32 |
| 7 | 69 | 31 |
| 8 | 70 | 30 |
| 9 | 71 | 29 |
| 10 | 72 | 28 |
| 11 | 73 | 27 |
| 12 | 74 | 26 |
| 13 | 75 | 25 |
| 14 | 76 | 24 |
| 15 | 76 | 24 |
| 16 | 77 | 23 |
| 17 | 78 | 22 |
| 18 | 79 | 21 |
| 19 | 79 | 21 |
| 20 | 80 | 20 |
| 21 | 80 | 20 |
| 22 | 80 | 20 |
| 23 | 81 | 19 |
| 24 | 81 | 19 |
| 25 | 80 | 20 |
| 26 | 80 | 20 |
| 27 | 80 | 20 |
| 28 | 80 | 20 |
Chance of precipitation in February
San Martín Cuautlalpan gets around 28 mm of rain over 5.9 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 21% and peaks near 26% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 26 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 22 |
| 2 | 22 |
| 3 | 22 |
| 4 | 22 |
| 5 | 22 |
| 6 | 21 |
| 7 | 21 |
| 8 | 20 |
| 9 | 20 |
| 10 | 19 |
| 11 | 19 |
| 12 | 18 |
| 13 | 18 |
| 14 | 18 |
| 15 | 18 |
| 16 | 18 |
| 17 | 19 |
| 18 | 19 |
| 19 | 19 |
| 20 | 20 |
| 21 | 21 |
| 22 | 21 |
| 23 | 22 |
| 24 | 23 |
| 25 | 24 |
| 26 | 24 |
| 27 | 25 |
| 28 | 26 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 6 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 6 km/h on the calmest days to 6 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6 | calm |
| 2 | 6 | calm |
| 3 | 6 | calm |
| 4 | 6 | calm |
| 5 | 6 | calm |
| 6 | 6 | calm |
| 7 | 6 | calm |
| 8 | 6 | calm |
| 9 | 6 | calm |
| 10 | 6 | calm |
| 11 | 6 | calm |
| 12 | 6 | calm |
| 13 | 6 | calm |
| 14 | 6 | calm |
| 15 | 6 | calm |
| 16 | 6 | calm |
| 17 | 6 | calm |
| 18 | 6 | calm |
| 19 | 6 | calm |
| 20 | 6 | calm |
| 21 | 6 | calm |
| 22 | 6 | calm |
| 23 | 6 | calm |
| 24 | 6 | calm |
| 25 | 6 | calm |
| 26 | 6 | calm |
| 27 | 6 | calm |
| 28 | 6 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 06 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 30 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:15 AM to 7:02 AM, and sunset from 6:23 PM to 6:36 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.1 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:15 | 7:14 | 7:14 | 7:14 | 7:14 | 7:13 | 7:13 | 7:13 | 7:12 | 7:12 | 7:11 | 7:11 | 7:10 | 7:10 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:07 | 7:07 | 7:06 | 7:06 | 7:05 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:03 | 7:02 | 7:02 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:23 | 6:24 | 6:24 | 6:25 | 6:25 | 6:26 | 6:26 | 6:27 | 6:27 | 6:28 | 6:28 | 6:29 | 6:29 | 6:30 | 6:30 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:32 | 6:32 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:36 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.1 | 7:15 | 6:23 |
| 2 | 11.2 | 7:14 | 6:24 |
| 3 | 11.2 | 7:14 | 6:24 |
| 4 | 11.2 | 7:14 | 6:25 |
| 5 | 11.2 | 7:14 | 6:25 |
| 6 | 11.2 | 7:13 | 6:26 |
| 7 | 11.2 | 7:13 | 6:26 |
| 8 | 11.2 | 7:13 | 6:27 |
| 9 | 11.3 | 7:12 | 6:27 |
| 10 | 11.3 | 7:12 | 6:28 |
| 11 | 11.3 | 7:11 | 6:28 |
| 12 | 11.3 | 7:11 | 6:29 |
| 13 | 11.3 | 7:10 | 6:29 |
| 14 | 11.3 | 7:10 | 6:30 |
| 15 | 11.3 | 7:09 | 6:30 |
| 16 | 11.4 | 7:09 | 6:31 |
| 17 | 11.4 | 7:08 | 6:31 |
| 18 | 11.4 | 7:08 | 6:32 |
| 19 | 11.4 | 7:07 | 6:32 |
| 20 | 11.4 | 7:07 | 6:33 |
| 21 | 11.4 | 7:06 | 6:33 |
| 22 | 11.5 | 7:06 | 6:33 |
| 23 | 11.5 | 7:05 | 6:34 |
| 24 | 11.5 | 7:04 | 6:34 |
| 25 | 11.5 | 7:04 | 6:35 |
| 26 | 11.5 | 7:03 | 6:35 |
| 27 | 11.6 | 7:02 | 6:35 |
| 28 | 11.6 | 7:02 | 6:36 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 5.93 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.02 kWh/m² to a high of 6.88 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 5.93 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.4 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.6 | 5.6 | 5.6 | 5.7 | 5.7 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.5 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.6 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.6 | Bright |
| 7 | 5.6 | Bright |
| 8 | 5.7 | Bright |
| 9 | 5.7 | Bright |
| 10 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 11 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 12 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 13 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 14 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 15 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 16 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.4 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for San Martín Cuautlalpan
None of San Martín Cuautlalpan's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
San Martín Cuautlalpan's monsoon runs May–October, when most of the year's rain falls.
Is February a good time to visit San Martín Cuautlalpan?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit San Martín Cuautlalpan for general sightseeing.
What to pack for San Martín Cuautlalpan in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, San Martín Cuautlalpan sees daytime highs around 19°C and nights near 5°C. Worth packing: a warm layer and sun protection. About 6 days see rain.
UV index in San Martín Cuautlalpan in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 12 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in San Martín Cuautlalpan peaks around April 10 at about 15 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 14 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 9 | 12 | 14 | 15 | 11 | 14 | 12 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 8 |
| Level | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 9 | Very high |
| Feb | 12 | Extreme |
| Mar | 14 | Extreme |
| Apr | 15 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 14 | Extreme |
| Jul | 12 | Extreme |
| Aug | 14 | Extreme |
| Sep | 12 | Extreme |
| Oct | 11 | Extreme |
| Nov | 9 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in San Martín Cuautlalpan in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in San Martín Cuautlalpan is worst in December — around 179 µg/m³ PM2.5 (very unhealthy), and holds fairly steady the rest of the year.
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 149 | 141 | 126 | 113 | 134 | 126 | 135 | 127 | 136 | 137 | 174 | 179 |
| Level | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Very unhealthy | Very unhealthy |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 149 | Unhealthy |
| Feb | 141 | Unhealthy |
| Mar | 126 | Unhealthy |
| Apr | 113 | Unhealthy |
| May | 134 | Unhealthy |
| Jun | 126 | Unhealthy |
| Jul | 135 | Unhealthy |
| Aug | 127 | Unhealthy |
| Sep | 136 | Unhealthy |
| Oct | 137 | Unhealthy |
| Nov | 174 | Very unhealthy |
| Dec | 179 | Very unhealthy |
Where is San Martín Cuautlalpan?
San Martín Cuautlalpan sits at 19.3°N, 98.8°W, 2,279 m above sea level, in Mexico. The nearest listed city is San Jerónimo Cuatro Vientos, 2.0 km away.
Topography around San Martín Cuautlalpan
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of San Martín Cuautlalpan.
Within 3 km, the terrain around San Martín Cuautlalpan has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 246 m around an average of 2,306 m above sea level; within 16 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 1,838 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 4,490 m.
The land around San Martín Cuautlalpan is covered by artificial surfaces (36%) and cropland (32%) within 3 km, trees (35%), cropland (23%) and artificial surfaces (21%) within 16 km, and trees (32%) and cropland (29%) within 80 km.
Mexico travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type A / B
- 120 / 127 V · 60 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 54% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $13,889
- 2025
- Happiness
- 7.0 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 43%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 24.9
- per 100k, 2023
- Road deaths
- 12.8
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 440
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for San Martín Cuautlalpan (19.2762°, -98.8317°, elevation 2,279 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).