Chachapoyas weather in September
In September, Chachapoyas sees average daytime highs of 18°C and overnight lows near 8°C, with 129 mm of rain across 25 wet days and about 12 hours of daylight. It is the 9th-warmest and 9th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 18°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 4% of the time in September, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 54 min at the start of September to 12 hours by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, September is Chachapoyas's 4th-clearest and 3rd-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Chachapoyas's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 18°
- 9th warmest
- Overnight low
- 8°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 129 mm
- 25 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 hours
- 6:07 AM – 6:05 PM
- Cloud cover
- 76%
- 4th clearest
- Wind
- 4 km/h
- 3rd windiest
- Solar energy
- 5.36 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 3.7
- out of 10
Chachapoyas is city in Amazonas, Peru.
- Density
- 208/km²
- people per km²
- Founded
- 1538
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in September
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 18°C through the month.
A typical September day in Chachapoyas reaches about 18°C in the afternoon and slips back to 8°C overnight — a 9°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 16°C and 20°C. Set against its neighbours, September runs on par with August and on par with October.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
| Avg low (°C) | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 18 | 8 |
| 2 | 18 | 8 |
| 3 | 18 | 8 |
| 4 | 18 | 8 |
| 5 | 18 | 8 |
| 6 | 18 | 8 |
| 7 | 18 | 8 |
| 8 | 18 | 8 |
| 9 | 18 | 8 |
| 10 | 18 | 8 |
| 11 | 18 | 8 |
| 12 | 18 | 8 |
| 13 | 18 | 8 |
| 14 | 18 | 8 |
| 15 | 18 | 8 |
| 16 | 18 | 8 |
| 17 | 18 | 9 |
| 18 | 18 | 9 |
| 19 | 18 | 9 |
| 20 | 18 | 9 |
| 21 | 18 | 9 |
| 22 | 18 | 9 |
| 23 | 18 | 9 |
| 24 | 18 | 9 |
| 25 | 18 | 9 |
| 26 | 18 | 9 |
| 27 | 18 | 9 |
| 28 | 18 | 9 |
| 29 | 18 | 9 |
| 30 | 18 | 9 |
Chachapoyas weather by month
How September compares with the rest of the year at a glance. September is the 9th-warmest and 9th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 19° / 10° | 285 | 28 | 12.3 | 3.4 |
| Feb | 18° / 10° | 293 | 26.4 | 12.2 | 3.2 |
| Mar | 18° / 10° | 320 | 29.6 | 12 | 3.1 |
| Apr | 18° / 10° | 223 | 28.1 | 11.9 | 3.3 |
| May | 18° / 10° | 148 | 25.1 | 11.7 | 3.8 |
| Jun | 18° / 9° | 86 | 20.6 | 11.6 | 4.3 |
| Jul | 17° / 8° | 77 | 19.9 | 11.7 | 4.3 |
| Aug | 17° / 8° | 75 | 19.8 | 11.8 | 4.4 |
| Sep | 18° / 8° | 129 | 25 | 12 | 3.7 |
| Oct | 18° / 9° | 244 | 27.7 | 12.1 | 3.4 |
| Nov | 19° / 10° | 243 | 24.5 | 12.3 | 3.8 |
| Dec | 19° / 10° | 266 | 27.3 | 12.4 | 3.5 |
Cloud cover in September
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 4% of the time in September.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 17% of September, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 80%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 31 | 31 | 31 | 30 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 25 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Cloudier (%) | 69 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 90 | 90 | 90 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 31 | 69 |
| 2 | 31 | 69 |
| 3 | 31 | 69 |
| 4 | 30 | 70 |
| 5 | 30 | 70 |
| 6 | 29 | 71 |
| 7 | 28 | 72 |
| 8 | 28 | 72 |
| 9 | 26 | 74 |
| 10 | 26 | 74 |
| 11 | 25 | 75 |
| 12 | 25 | 75 |
| 13 | 22 | 78 |
| 14 | 21 | 79 |
| 15 | 21 | 79 |
| 16 | 20 | 80 |
| 17 | 19 | 81 |
| 18 | 18 | 82 |
| 19 | 16 | 84 |
| 20 | 15 | 85 |
| 21 | 14 | 86 |
| 22 | 14 | 86 |
| 23 | 13 | 87 |
| 24 | 13 | 87 |
| 25 | 12 | 88 |
| 26 | 12 | 88 |
| 27 | 12 | 88 |
| 28 | 10 | 90 |
| 29 | 10 | 90 |
| 30 | 10 | 90 |
Chance of precipitation in September
Chachapoyas gets around 129 mm of rain over 25 wet days in September. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 82% and peaks near 91% on the wettest days. The odds climb toward the end of the month.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 74 |
| 2 | 75 |
| 3 | 75 |
| 4 | 76 |
| 5 | 76 |
| 6 | 77 |
| 7 | 77 |
| 8 | 77 |
| 9 | 78 |
| 10 | 78 |
| 11 | 79 |
| 12 | 79 |
| 13 | 80 |
| 14 | 80 |
| 15 | 81 |
| 16 | 82 |
| 17 | 83 |
| 18 | 84 |
| 19 | 85 |
| 20 | 86 |
| 21 | 87 |
| 22 | 87 |
| 23 | 88 |
| 24 | 89 |
| 25 | 89 |
| 26 | 89 |
| 27 | 90 |
| 28 | 90 |
| 29 | 90 |
| 30 | 91 |
Humidity in September
Most of September feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, September lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
| 29 | 100 |
| 30 | 100 |
Wind in September
Winds average 4 km/h in September.
Across September, daily wind ranges from about 4 km/h on the calmest days to 5 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 5 | calm |
| 9 | 5 | calm |
| 10 | 5 | calm |
| 11 | 4 | calm |
| 12 | 4 | calm |
| 13 | 4 | calm |
| 14 | 4 | calm |
| 15 | 4 | calm |
| 16 | 4 | calm |
| 17 | 4 | calm |
| 18 | 4 | calm |
| 19 | 4 | calm |
| 20 | 4 | calm |
| 21 | 4 | calm |
| 22 | 4 | calm |
| 23 | 4 | calm |
| 24 | 4 | calm |
| 25 | 4 | calm |
| 26 | 4 | calm |
| 27 | 4 | calm |
| 28 | 4 | calm |
| 29 | 4 | calm |
| 30 | 4 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in September
Daylight runs from about 11 h 54 min at the start of September to 12 hours by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 6 minutes over September. Sunrise moves from 6:15 AM to 5:59 AM, and sunset from 6:08 PM to 6:02 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:15 | 6:14 | 6:14 | 6:13 | 6:13 | 6:12 | 6:12 | 6:11 | 6:11 | 6:10 | 6:10 | 6:09 | 6:08 | 6:08 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:03 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:00 | 6:00 | 5:59 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:08 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:02 | 6:02 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.9 | 6:15 | 6:08 |
| 2 | 11.9 | 6:14 | 6:07 |
| 3 | 11.9 | 6:14 | 6:07 |
| 4 | 11.9 | 6:13 | 6:07 |
| 5 | 11.9 | 6:13 | 6:07 |
| 6 | 11.9 | 6:12 | 6:07 |
| 7 | 11.9 | 6:12 | 6:07 |
| 8 | 11.9 | 6:11 | 6:06 |
| 9 | 11.9 | 6:11 | 6:06 |
| 10 | 11.9 | 6:10 | 6:06 |
| 11 | 11.9 | 6:10 | 6:06 |
| 12 | 11.9 | 6:09 | 6:06 |
| 13 | 11.9 | 6:08 | 6:05 |
| 14 | 12.0 | 6:08 | 6:05 |
| 15 | 12.0 | 6:07 | 6:05 |
| 16 | 12.0 | 6:07 | 6:05 |
| 17 | 12.0 | 6:06 | 6:05 |
| 18 | 12.0 | 6:06 | 6:04 |
| 19 | 12.0 | 6:05 | 6:04 |
| 20 | 12.0 | 6:05 | 6:04 |
| 21 | 12.0 | 6:04 | 6:04 |
| 22 | 12.0 | 6:04 | 6:04 |
| 23 | 12.0 | 6:03 | 6:03 |
| 24 | 12.0 | 6:02 | 6:03 |
| 25 | 12.0 | 6:02 | 6:03 |
| 26 | 12.0 | 6:01 | 6:03 |
| 27 | 12.0 | 6:01 | 6:03 |
| 28 | 12.0 | 6:00 | 6:03 |
| 29 | 12.0 | 6:00 | 6:02 |
| 30 | 12.0 | 5:59 | 6:02 |
Solar energy in September
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in September, about 5.36 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.52 kWh/m² to a high of 5.38 kWh/m² in October across the year — September's 5.36 kWh/m² sits near the top of that range.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.3 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 | 5.4 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.3 | Bright |
| 7 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 8 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 9 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 10 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 11 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 12 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 13 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 14 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 15 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 16 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 17 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 18 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 19 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 20 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 21 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 22 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 23 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 24 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 25 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 26 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 27 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 28 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 29 | 5.4 | Bright |
| 30 | 5.4 | Bright |
Is September a good time to visit Chachapoyas?
Our two travel scores rate September for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
September is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in Chachapoyas.
What to pack for Chachapoyas in September
From September's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In September, Chachapoyas sees daytime highs around 18°C and nights near 8°C. Pack rain gear. Worth having: sun protection. About 25 days see rain.
UV index in Chachapoyas in September
Clear-sky midday UV in September peaks around 14 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Chachapoyas peaks around February 15 at about 18 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near July 10 at about 11 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 17 | 18 | 17 | 15 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 14 | 15 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 17 | Extreme |
| Feb | 18 | Extreme |
| Mar | 17 | Extreme |
| Apr | 15 | Extreme |
| May | 14 | Extreme |
| Jun | 12 | Extreme |
| Jul | 11 | Extreme |
| Aug | 12 | Extreme |
| Sep | 14 | Extreme |
| Oct | 16 | Extreme |
| Nov | 14 | Extreme |
| Dec | 15 | Extreme |
Air quality in Chachapoyas in September
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where September falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Chachapoyas is worst in September — around 19 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 2.6× the cleanest month (July, 7 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 11 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 12 | 19 | 11 | 14 | 10 |
| Level | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Good | Moderate | Good | Moderate | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 11 | Good |
| Feb | 12 | Good |
| Mar | 11 | Good |
| Apr | 10 | Good |
| May | 8 | Good |
| Jun | 8 | Good |
| Jul | 7 | Good |
| Aug | 12 | Good |
| Sep | 19 | Moderate |
| Oct | 11 | Good |
| Nov | 14 | Moderate |
| Dec | 10 | Good |
Where is Chachapoyas?
Chachapoyas sits at 6.2°S, 77.9°W, 2,360 m above sea level, in Peru. The nearest listed city is Rioja, 80 km away.
Topography around Chachapoyas
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Chachapoyas.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Chachapoyas has large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 880 m around an average of 2,324 m above sea level; within 16 km, very significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,031 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 3,818 m.
The land around Chachapoyas is covered by grassland (73%) within 3 km, grassland (77%) within 16 km, and trees (63%) and grassland (34%) within 80 km.
Peru travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type A / B / C
- 220 V · 60 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 51% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $9,684
- 2025
- Happiness
- 6.0 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 49%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 8.6
- per 100k, 2021
- Road deaths
- 13.6
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Moderate
- EF EPI 519
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Chachapoyas (-6.2317°, -77.869°, elevation 2,360 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).