San Fernando weather in February
In February, San Fernando sees average daytime highs of 30°C and overnight lows near 23°C, with 310 mm of rain across 23.3 wet days and about 12.3 hours of daylight. It is the 7th-warmest and 2nd-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 30°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February, and the air most often feels oppressive.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 24 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is San Fernando's 11th-clearest and 5th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see San Fernando's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 30°
- 7th warmest
- Overnight low
- 23°
- 10th coldest
- Rainfall
- 310 mm
- 23.3 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 18 min
- 6:04 AM – 6:21 PM
- Cloud cover
- 88%
- 11th clearest
- Wind
- 5 km/h
- 5th windiest
- Solar energy
- 4.74 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 2.9
- out of 10
San Fernando is city in Ucayali, Peru.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 30°C through the month.
A typical February day in San Fernando reaches about 30°C in the afternoon and slips back to 23°C overnight — a 7°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 27°C and 33°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs on par with January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 31 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
| Avg low (°C) | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 31 | 24 |
| 2 | 30 | 24 |
| 3 | 30 | 24 |
| 4 | 30 | 24 |
| 5 | 30 | 24 |
| 6 | 30 | 24 |
| 7 | 30 | 24 |
| 8 | 30 | 23 |
| 9 | 30 | 23 |
| 10 | 30 | 23 |
| 11 | 30 | 23 |
| 12 | 30 | 23 |
| 13 | 30 | 23 |
| 14 | 30 | 23 |
| 15 | 30 | 23 |
| 16 | 30 | 23 |
| 17 | 30 | 23 |
| 18 | 30 | 23 |
| 19 | 30 | 23 |
| 20 | 30 | 23 |
| 21 | 30 | 23 |
| 22 | 30 | 23 |
| 23 | 30 | 23 |
| 24 | 30 | 23 |
| 25 | 30 | 23 |
| 26 | 30 | 23 |
| 27 | 30 | 23 |
| 28 | 30 | 23 |
How February really feels in San Fernando
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 28 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
San Fernando weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 7th-warmest and 2nd-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 31° / 24° | 302 | 25.6 | 12.4 | 2.9 |
| Feb | 30° / 23° | 310 | 23.3 | 12.3 | 2.9 |
| Mar | 30° / 23° | 350 | 26.3 | 12.1 | 2.9 |
| Apr | 30° / 23° | 257 | 23 | 11.8 | 3.2 |
| May | 30° / 23° | 158 | 19.3 | 11.6 | 3.9 |
| Jun | 30° / 22° | 98 | 14.3 | 11.5 | 4.5 |
| Jul | 30° / 22° | 82 | 11.2 | 11.6 | 4.9 |
| Aug | 31° / 23° | 99 | 11.4 | 11.7 | 4.4 |
| Sep | 32° / 23° | 148 | 15.1 | 12 | 3.7 |
| Oct | 31° / 23° | 226 | 21.6 | 12.2 | 3.2 |
| Nov | 31° / 23° | 276 | 23.7 | 12.4 | 3.0 |
| Dec | 31° / 24° | 290 | 25.5 | 12.5 | 2.9 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 1% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 6% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 93%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Cloudier (%) | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 93 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 95 | 95 | 95 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 9 | 91 |
| 2 | 9 | 91 |
| 3 | 9 | 91 |
| 4 | 9 | 91 |
| 5 | 9 | 91 |
| 6 | 9 | 91 |
| 7 | 9 | 91 |
| 8 | 9 | 91 |
| 9 | 9 | 91 |
| 10 | 8 | 92 |
| 11 | 8 | 92 |
| 12 | 8 | 92 |
| 13 | 7 | 93 |
| 14 | 7 | 93 |
| 15 | 7 | 93 |
| 16 | 7 | 93 |
| 17 | 6 | 94 |
| 18 | 6 | 94 |
| 19 | 6 | 94 |
| 20 | 6 | 94 |
| 21 | 7 | 93 |
| 22 | 6 | 94 |
| 23 | 6 | 94 |
| 24 | 6 | 94 |
| 25 | 6 | 94 |
| 26 | 5 | 95 |
| 27 | 5 | 95 |
| 28 | 5 | 95 |
Chance of precipitation in February
San Fernando gets around 310 mm of rain over 23.3 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 83% and peaks near 85% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 85 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 82 |
| 2 | 82 |
| 3 | 82 |
| 4 | 82 |
| 5 | 82 |
| 6 | 82 |
| 7 | 83 |
| 8 | 83 |
| 9 | 83 |
| 10 | 83 |
| 11 | 83 |
| 12 | 84 |
| 13 | 84 |
| 14 | 84 |
| 15 | 84 |
| 16 | 84 |
| 17 | 84 |
| 18 | 84 |
| 19 | 84 |
| 20 | 84 |
| 21 | 84 |
| 22 | 84 |
| 23 | 84 |
| 24 | 84 |
| 25 | 84 |
| 26 | 84 |
| 27 | 85 |
| 28 | 85 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels oppressive — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the oppressive band about 65% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 100% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oppressive (%) | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 68 | 68 | 67 | 67 | 66 | 66 | 65 | 65 | 64 | 64 | 63 |
| Miserable (%) | 41 | 40 | 39 | 38 | 37 | 37 | 36 | 35 | 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 35 | 35 | 36 | 36 | 37 |
| Oppressive (%) | Miserable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 59 | 41 |
| 2 | 60 | 40 |
| 3 | 61 | 39 |
| 4 | 62 | 38 |
| 5 | 63 | 37 |
| 6 | 63 | 37 |
| 7 | 64 | 36 |
| 8 | 65 | 35 |
| 9 | 66 | 34 |
| 10 | 67 | 33 |
| 11 | 68 | 32 |
| 12 | 69 | 31 |
| 13 | 69 | 31 |
| 14 | 69 | 31 |
| 15 | 69 | 31 |
| 16 | 69 | 31 |
| 17 | 69 | 31 |
| 18 | 68 | 32 |
| 19 | 68 | 32 |
| 20 | 67 | 33 |
| 21 | 67 | 33 |
| 22 | 66 | 34 |
| 23 | 66 | 34 |
| 24 | 65 | 35 |
| 25 | 65 | 35 |
| 26 | 64 | 36 |
| 27 | 64 | 36 |
| 28 | 63 | 37 |
Wind in February
Winds average 5 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 5 km/h on the calmest days to 5 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | calm |
| 2 | 5 | calm |
| 3 | 5 | calm |
| 4 | 5 | calm |
| 5 | 5 | calm |
| 6 | 5 | calm |
| 7 | 5 | calm |
| 8 | 5 | calm |
| 9 | 5 | calm |
| 10 | 5 | calm |
| 11 | 5 | calm |
| 12 | 5 | calm |
| 13 | 5 | calm |
| 14 | 5 | calm |
| 15 | 5 | calm |
| 16 | 5 | calm |
| 17 | 5 | calm |
| 18 | 5 | calm |
| 19 | 5 | calm |
| 20 | 5 | calm |
| 21 | 5 | calm |
| 22 | 5 | calm |
| 23 | 5 | calm |
| 24 | 5 | calm |
| 25 | 5 | calm |
| 26 | 5 | calm |
| 27 | 5 | calm |
| 28 | 5 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 24 min at the start of February to 12 h 12 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days shrink by about 12 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:01 AM to 6:06 AM, and sunset from 6:23 PM to 6:17 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.3 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 12.2 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:23 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:22 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:21 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:20 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:19 | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:18 | 6:17 | 6:17 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.4 | 6:01 | 6:23 |
| 2 | 12.4 | 6:01 | 6:23 |
| 3 | 12.4 | 6:01 | 6:23 |
| 4 | 12.3 | 6:02 | 6:22 |
| 5 | 12.3 | 6:02 | 6:22 |
| 6 | 12.3 | 6:02 | 6:22 |
| 7 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:22 |
| 8 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:22 |
| 9 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:22 |
| 10 | 12.3 | 6:03 | 6:22 |
| 11 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:22 |
| 12 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:22 |
| 13 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:21 |
| 14 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:21 |
| 15 | 12.3 | 6:04 | 6:21 |
| 16 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:21 |
| 17 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:21 |
| 18 | 12.3 | 6:05 | 6:20 |
| 19 | 12.2 | 6:05 | 6:20 |
| 20 | 12.2 | 6:05 | 6:20 |
| 21 | 12.2 | 6:05 | 6:19 |
| 22 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:19 |
| 23 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:19 |
| 24 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:18 |
| 25 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:18 |
| 26 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:18 |
| 27 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:17 |
| 28 | 12.2 | 6:06 | 6:17 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 4.74 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 4.13 kWh/m² to a high of 5.43 kWh/m² in September across the year — February's 4.74 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.9 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.6 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 2 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 3 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 4 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 5 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 6 | 4.9 | Bright |
| 7 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 8 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 9 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 10 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 11 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 12 | 4.8 | Bright |
| 13 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 14 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 15 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 16 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 17 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 18 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 19 | 4.7 | Bright |
| 20 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 21 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 22 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 23 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 24 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 25 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 26 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 27 | 4.6 | Bright |
| 28 | 4.6 | Bright |
Is February a good time to visit San Fernando?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a weaker month for outdoor sightseeing in San Fernando.
What to pack for San Fernando in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, San Fernando sees daytime highs around 30°C and nights near 23°C. Pack light clothes and rain gear. Worth having: sun protection. About 23 days see rain.
UV index in San Fernando in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 16 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in San Fernando peaks around February 13 at about 16 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near September 10 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 15 | 16 | 15 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 12 | 13 | 13 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 15 | Extreme |
| Feb | 16 | Extreme |
| Mar | 15 | Extreme |
| Apr | 11 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 10 | Very high |
| Jul | 10 | Very high |
| Aug | 9 | Very high |
| Sep | 8 | Very high |
| Oct | 12 | Extreme |
| Nov | 13 | Extreme |
| Dec | 13 | Extreme |
Air quality in San Fernando in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in San Fernando is worst in September — around 31 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 3.7× the cleanest month (June, 8 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 14 | 16 | 15 | 11 | 9 | 8 | 12 | 23 | 31 | 17 | 13 | 12 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Good | Good | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 14 | Moderate |
| Feb | 16 | Moderate |
| Mar | 15 | Moderate |
| Apr | 11 | Good |
| May | 9 | Good |
| Jun | 8 | Good |
| Jul | 12 | Moderate |
| Aug | 23 | Moderate |
| Sep | 31 | Moderate |
| Oct | 17 | Moderate |
| Nov | 13 | Moderate |
| Dec | 12 | Good |
Where is San Fernando?
San Fernando sits at 8.4°S, 74.5°W, 155 m above sea level, in Peru. The nearest listed city is Pucallpa, 3.0 km away.
Topography around San Fernando
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of San Fernando.
Within 3 km, the terrain around San Fernando has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 27 m around an average of 152 m above sea level; within 16 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 38 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 711 m.
The land around San Fernando is covered by artificial surfaces (50%) within 3 km, trees (59%) and grassland (26%) within 16 km, and trees (89%) within 80 km.
Peru travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 2
- Exercise Increased Caution
- Power plugs
- Type A / B / C
- 220 V · 60 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 51% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $9,684
- 2025
- Happiness
- 6.0 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 49%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 8.6
- per 100k, 2021
- Road deaths
- 13.6
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Upper middle
- World Bank
- English
- Moderate
- EF EPI 519
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for San Fernando (-8.3982°, -74.5377°, elevation 155 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).