Al Qiţena weather in February
In February, Al Qiţena sees average daytime highs of 33°C and overnight lows near 19°C, with 0 mm of rain across 0 wet days and about 11.5 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 9th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 32°C in the first days to 34°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 81% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Al Qiţena's 5th-clearest and 1st-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Al Qiţena's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 33°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 19°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 0 mm
- 0 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 30 min
- 7:20 AM – 6:50 PM
- Cloud cover
- 18%
- 5th clearest
- Wind
- 22 km/h
- 1st windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.48 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 4.9
- out of 10
Al Qiţena is human settlement in Sudan.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 32°C in the first days to 34°C by the end.
A typical February day in Al Qiţena reaches about 33°C in the afternoon and slips back to 19°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 28°C and 38°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 4°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 35 | 35 |
| Avg low (°C) | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 32 | 18 |
| 2 | 32 | 18 |
| 3 | 32 | 18 |
| 4 | 32 | 18 |
| 5 | 32 | 18 |
| 6 | 32 | 18 |
| 7 | 32 | 18 |
| 8 | 32 | 18 |
| 9 | 32 | 18 |
| 10 | 32 | 18 |
| 11 | 32 | 18 |
| 12 | 32 | 18 |
| 13 | 32 | 18 |
| 14 | 33 | 19 |
| 15 | 33 | 19 |
| 16 | 33 | 19 |
| 17 | 33 | 19 |
| 18 | 33 | 19 |
| 19 | 33 | 19 |
| 20 | 33 | 19 |
| 21 | 34 | 19 |
| 22 | 34 | 20 |
| 23 | 34 | 20 |
| 24 | 34 | 20 |
| 25 | 34 | 20 |
| 26 | 34 | 20 |
| 27 | 35 | 20 |
| 28 | 35 | 20 |
How February really feels in Al Qiţena
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 21 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
The story in February is heat — humidity pushes the afternoon "feels like" well above the raw temperature.
Al Qiţena weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 9th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 30° / 17° | 0 | 0 | 11.2 | 6.6 |
| Feb | 33° / 19° | 0 | 0 | 11.5 | 4.9 |
| Mar | 36° / 22° | 0 | 0 | 11.9 | 2.5 |
| Apr | 40° / 25° | 0 | 0.1 | 12.3 | 0.4 |
| May | 41° / 28° | 5 | 1.7 | 12.7 | 0.0 |
| Jun | 40° / 28° | 6 | 2 | 12.9 | 0.2 |
| Jul | 37° / 27° | 29 | 6.1 | 12.8 | 1.8 |
| Aug | 35° / 26° | 36 | 7.7 | 12.5 | 2.5 |
| Sep | 37° / 27° | 16 | 4.5 | 12.1 | 1.6 |
| Oct | 38° / 26° | 6 | 1.8 | 11.7 | 1.3 |
| Nov | 35° / 22° | 0 | 0 | 11.3 | 3.5 |
| Dec | 31° / 18° | 0 | 0 | 11.1 | 6.0 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 81% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 9% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 10%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 92 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 |
| Cloudier (%) | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 92 | 8 |
| 2 | 92 | 8 |
| 3 | 92 | 8 |
| 4 | 91 | 9 |
| 5 | 91 | 9 |
| 6 | 91 | 9 |
| 7 | 91 | 9 |
| 8 | 91 | 9 |
| 9 | 90 | 10 |
| 10 | 90 | 10 |
| 11 | 90 | 10 |
| 12 | 90 | 10 |
| 13 | 90 | 10 |
| 14 | 90 | 10 |
| 15 | 89 | 11 |
| 16 | 89 | 11 |
| 17 | 89 | 11 |
| 18 | 89 | 11 |
| 19 | 89 | 11 |
| 20 | 89 | 11 |
| 21 | 89 | 11 |
| 22 | 90 | 10 |
| 23 | 90 | 10 |
| 24 | 90 | 10 |
| 25 | 91 | 9 |
| 26 | 91 | 9 |
| 27 | 91 | 9 |
| 28 | 91 | 9 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Al Qiţena gets around 0 mm of rain over 0 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 0% and peaks near 0% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 0 |
| 3 | 0 |
| 4 | 0 |
| 5 | 0 |
| 6 | 0 |
| 7 | 0 |
| 8 | 0 |
| 9 | 0 |
| 10 | 0 |
| 11 | 0 |
| 12 | 0 |
| 13 | 0 |
| 14 | 0 |
| 15 | 0 |
| 16 | 0 |
| 17 | 0 |
| 18 | 0 |
| 19 | 0 |
| 20 | 0 |
| 21 | 0 |
| 22 | 0 |
| 23 | 0 |
| 24 | 0 |
| 25 | 0 |
| 26 | 0 |
| 27 | 0 |
| 28 | 0 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 22 km/h in February, the windiest month of the year.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 21 km/h on the calmest days to 22 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Feels | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy | breezy |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 21 | breezy |
| 2 | 21 | breezy |
| 3 | 21 | breezy |
| 4 | 21 | breezy |
| 5 | 21 | breezy |
| 6 | 21 | breezy |
| 7 | 22 | breezy |
| 8 | 22 | breezy |
| 9 | 22 | breezy |
| 10 | 22 | breezy |
| 11 | 22 | breezy |
| 12 | 22 | breezy |
| 13 | 22 | breezy |
| 14 | 22 | breezy |
| 15 | 22 | breezy |
| 16 | 22 | breezy |
| 17 | 22 | breezy |
| 18 | 22 | breezy |
| 19 | 22 | breezy |
| 20 | 22 | breezy |
| 21 | 22 | breezy |
| 22 | 22 | breezy |
| 23 | 21 | breezy |
| 24 | 21 | breezy |
| 25 | 21 | breezy |
| 26 | 21 | breezy |
| 27 | 21 | breezy |
| 28 | 21 | breezy |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 18 min at the start of February to 11 h 42 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 24 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:24 AM to 7:14 AM, and sunset from 6:44 PM to 6:54 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.3 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 11.7 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:24 | 7:23 | 7:23 | 7:23 | 7:23 | 7:23 | 7:22 | 7:22 | 7:22 | 7:22 | 7:21 | 7:21 | 7:21 | 7:20 | 7:20 | 7:20 | 7:19 | 7:19 | 7:18 | 7:18 | 7:17 | 7:17 | 7:16 | 7:16 | 7:15 | 7:15 | 7:14 | 7:14 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:44 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:46 | 6:46 | 6:47 | 6:47 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:52 | 6:52 | 6:52 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:54 | 6:54 | 6:54 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.3 | 7:24 | 6:44 |
| 2 | 11.4 | 7:23 | 6:45 |
| 3 | 11.4 | 7:23 | 6:45 |
| 4 | 11.4 | 7:23 | 6:46 |
| 5 | 11.4 | 7:23 | 6:46 |
| 6 | 11.4 | 7:23 | 6:47 |
| 7 | 11.4 | 7:22 | 6:47 |
| 8 | 11.4 | 7:22 | 6:48 |
| 9 | 11.4 | 7:22 | 6:48 |
| 10 | 11.4 | 7:22 | 6:48 |
| 11 | 11.5 | 7:21 | 6:49 |
| 12 | 11.5 | 7:21 | 6:49 |
| 13 | 11.5 | 7:21 | 6:50 |
| 14 | 11.5 | 7:20 | 6:50 |
| 15 | 11.5 | 7:20 | 6:50 |
| 16 | 11.5 | 7:20 | 6:51 |
| 17 | 11.5 | 7:19 | 6:51 |
| 18 | 11.5 | 7:19 | 6:51 |
| 19 | 11.6 | 7:18 | 6:52 |
| 20 | 11.6 | 7:18 | 6:52 |
| 21 | 11.6 | 7:17 | 6:52 |
| 22 | 11.6 | 7:17 | 6:53 |
| 23 | 11.6 | 7:16 | 6:53 |
| 24 | 11.6 | 7:16 | 6:53 |
| 25 | 11.6 | 7:15 | 6:53 |
| 26 | 11.6 | 7:15 | 6:54 |
| 27 | 11.7 | 7:14 | 6:54 |
| 28 | 11.7 | 7:14 | 6:54 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.48 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.66 kWh/m² to a high of 7.63 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.48 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 6.8 |
| Level | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 2 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 3 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 5 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.8 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.8 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.8 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Al Qiţena
None of Al Qiţena's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Al Qiţena sees seasonal dust haze (March–September), heaviest in June.
Is February a good time to visit Al Qiţena?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Al Qiţena for sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Al Qiţena in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Al Qiţena sees daytime highs around 33°C and nights near 19°C. Pack light clothes and sun protection. Worth having: a windbreaker.
UV index in Al Qiţena in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 12 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Al Qiţena peaks around April 9 at about 13 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 13 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 10 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 10 | 11 | 8 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 8 |
| Level | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 10 | Very high |
| Feb | 12 | Extreme |
| Mar | 13 | Extreme |
| Apr | 13 | Extreme |
| May | 10 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 8 | Very high |
| Aug | 10 | Extreme |
| Sep | 11 | Extreme |
| Oct | 10 | Extreme |
| Nov | 8 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in Al Qiţena in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Al Qiţena is worst in March — around 67 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 3.0× the cleanest month (August, 23 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 65 | 63 | 67 | 57 | 49 | 34 | 25 | 23 | 30 | 44 | 46 | 56 |
| Level | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Unhealthy |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 65 | Unhealthy |
| Feb | 63 | Unhealthy |
| Mar | 67 | Unhealthy |
| Apr | 57 | Unhealthy |
| May | 49 | Poor |
| Jun | 34 | Moderate |
| Jul | 25 | Moderate |
| Aug | 23 | Moderate |
| Sep | 30 | Moderate |
| Oct | 44 | Poor |
| Nov | 46 | Poor |
| Dec | 56 | Unhealthy |
Where is Al Qiţena?
Al Qiţena sits at 14.9°N, 32.4°E, 387 m above sea level, in Sudan. The nearest listed city is Al-Quṭaynah, 18 km away.
Topography around Al Qiţena
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Al Qiţena.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Al Qiţena has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 11 m around an average of 382 m above sea level; within 16 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 54 m; within 80 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 124 m.
The land around Al Qiţena is covered by grassland (31%) and bare terrain (29%) within 3 km, bare terrain (55%) within 16 km, and bare terrain (43%) and cropland (32%) within 80 km.
Sudan travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / D / F / G
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 215% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $1,165
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.1 / 10
- World Happiness, 2017
- Homicide rate
- 5.1
- per 100k, 2008
- Road deaths
- 26.8
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 421
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Al Qiţena (14.8648°, 32.3668°, elevation 387 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).