Mhalamba weather in February
In February, Mhalamba sees average daytime highs of 26°C and overnight lows near 21°C, with 76 mm of rain across 14.7 wet days and about 12.1 hours of daylight. It is the 3rd-warmest and 8th-wettest month of the year here.
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 26°C through the month. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 22% of the time in February, and the air most often feels muggy.
Daylight stretches from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 h 06 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Mhalamba's 6th-clearest and 7th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Mhalamba's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 26°
- 3rd warmest
- Overnight low
- 21°
- 12th coldest
- Rainfall
- 76 mm
- 14.7 wet days
- Daylight
- 12 h 06 min
- 7:04 AM – 7:09 PM
- Cloud cover
- 66%
- 6th clearest
- Wind
- 8 km/h
- 7th windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.11 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 5.6
- out of 10
Temperature in February
Day-to-day highs hold fairly steady near 26°C through the month.
A typical February day in Mhalamba reaches about 26°C in the afternoon and slips back to 21°C overnight — a 5°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 24°C and 28°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 1°C warmer than January and on par with March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 26 |
| Avg low (°C) | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 21 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 26 | 21 |
| 2 | 26 | 21 |
| 3 | 26 | 21 |
| 4 | 26 | 21 |
| 5 | 26 | 21 |
| 6 | 26 | 21 |
| 7 | 26 | 21 |
| 8 | 26 | 21 |
| 9 | 26 | 21 |
| 10 | 26 | 21 |
| 11 | 26 | 21 |
| 12 | 26 | 21 |
| 13 | 26 | 21 |
| 14 | 26 | 21 |
| 15 | 26 | 21 |
| 16 | 26 | 21 |
| 17 | 26 | 21 |
| 18 | 26 | 21 |
| 19 | 26 | 21 |
| 20 | 26 | 21 |
| 21 | 26 | 21 |
| 22 | 26 | 21 |
| 23 | 26 | 21 |
| 24 | 26 | 21 |
| 25 | 26 | 21 |
| 26 | 26 | 21 |
| 27 | 26 | 21 |
| 28 | 26 | 21 |
Mhalamba weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 3rd-warmest and 8th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 25° / 21° | 102 | 20.4 | 12.1 | 5.1 |
| Feb | 26° / 21° | 76 | 14.7 | 12.1 | 5.6 |
| Mar | 26° / 21° | 135 | 19.6 | 12 | 5.1 |
| Apr | 26° / 21° | 170 | 20.9 | 11.9 | 4.7 |
| May | 26° / 21° | 73 | 13.2 | 11.9 | 6.1 |
| Jun | 27° / 21° | 25 | 5 | 11.9 | 7.3 |
| Jul | 27° / 20° | 12 | 2.4 | 11.9 | 7.8 |
| Aug | 26° / 21° | 50 | 8.7 | 11.9 | 6.9 |
| Sep | 26° / 21° | 98 | 16 | 12 | 5.7 |
| Oct | 25° / 21° | 175 | 25.1 | 12.1 | 4.4 |
| Nov | 25° / 21° | 224 | 27.8 | 12.1 | 3.9 |
| Dec | 25° / 21° | 169 | 25.1 | 12.1 | 4.5 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 22% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 17% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 61%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 43 | 43 | 44 | 43 | 42 | 41 | 41 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 39 | 39 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 37 | 37 |
| Cloudier (%) | 57 | 57 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 59 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 63 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 63 | 63 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 43 | 57 |
| 2 | 43 | 57 |
| 3 | 44 | 56 |
| 4 | 43 | 57 |
| 5 | 42 | 58 |
| 6 | 41 | 59 |
| 7 | 41 | 59 |
| 8 | 40 | 60 |
| 9 | 40 | 60 |
| 10 | 40 | 60 |
| 11 | 39 | 61 |
| 12 | 39 | 61 |
| 13 | 38 | 62 |
| 14 | 38 | 62 |
| 15 | 38 | 62 |
| 16 | 37 | 63 |
| 17 | 37 | 63 |
| 18 | 37 | 63 |
| 19 | 37 | 63 |
| 20 | 37 | 63 |
| 21 | 38 | 62 |
| 22 | 38 | 62 |
| 23 | 38 | 62 |
| 24 | 38 | 62 |
| 25 | 38 | 62 |
| 26 | 38 | 62 |
| 27 | 37 | 63 |
| 28 | 37 | 63 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Mhalamba gets around 76 mm of rain over 14.7 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 53% and peaks near 55% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 54 | 53 | 52 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 50 | 50 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 51 | 52 | 52 | 53 | 53 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 55 | 55 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 54 |
| 2 | 53 |
| 3 | 52 |
| 4 | 51 |
| 5 | 51 |
| 6 | 51 |
| 7 | 51 |
| 8 | 50 |
| 9 | 50 |
| 10 | 51 |
| 11 | 51 |
| 12 | 51 |
| 13 | 51 |
| 14 | 52 |
| 15 | 52 |
| 16 | 53 |
| 17 | 53 |
| 18 | 54 |
| 19 | 54 |
| 20 | 54 |
| 21 | 55 |
| 22 | 55 |
| 23 | 55 |
| 24 | 55 |
| 25 | 55 |
| 26 | 55 |
| 27 | 55 |
| 28 | 55 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels muggy — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the muggy band about 76% of days. Sticky, muggy-or-worse air turns up on roughly 76% of them.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humid (%) | 19 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 19 |
| Muggy (%) | 81 | 81 | 80 | 79 | 78 | 76 | 75 | 75 | 74 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 81 |
| Humid (%) | Muggy (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 19 | 81 |
| 2 | 19 | 81 |
| 3 | 20 | 80 |
| 4 | 21 | 79 |
| 5 | 22 | 78 |
| 6 | 24 | 76 |
| 7 | 25 | 75 |
| 8 | 25 | 75 |
| 9 | 26 | 74 |
| 10 | 27 | 73 |
| 11 | 27 | 73 |
| 12 | 27 | 73 |
| 13 | 27 | 73 |
| 14 | 27 | 73 |
| 15 | 27 | 73 |
| 16 | 26 | 74 |
| 17 | 26 | 74 |
| 18 | 25 | 75 |
| 19 | 24 | 76 |
| 20 | 24 | 76 |
| 21 | 23 | 77 |
| 22 | 22 | 78 |
| 23 | 22 | 78 |
| 24 | 21 | 79 |
| 25 | 20 | 80 |
| 26 | 20 | 80 |
| 27 | 20 | 80 |
| 28 | 19 | 81 |
Wind in February
Winds average 8 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 8 km/h on the calmest days to 8 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 8 | calm |
| 2 | 8 | calm |
| 3 | 8 | calm |
| 4 | 8 | calm |
| 5 | 8 | calm |
| 6 | 8 | calm |
| 7 | 8 | calm |
| 8 | 8 | calm |
| 9 | 8 | calm |
| 10 | 8 | calm |
| 11 | 8 | calm |
| 12 | 8 | calm |
| 13 | 8 | calm |
| 14 | 8 | calm |
| 15 | 8 | calm |
| 16 | 8 | calm |
| 17 | 8 | calm |
| 18 | 8 | calm |
| 19 | 8 | calm |
| 20 | 8 | calm |
| 21 | 8 | calm |
| 22 | 8 | calm |
| 23 | 8 | calm |
| 24 | 8 | calm |
| 25 | 8 | calm |
| 26 | 8 | calm |
| 27 | 8 | calm |
| 28 | 8 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 12 h 06 min at the start of February to 12 h 06 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 0 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:02 AM to 7:04 AM, and sunset from 7:09 PM to 7:07 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 12.1 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:02 | 7:02 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:03 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 | 7:04 |
| Sunset (PM) | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:09 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:08 | 7:07 | 7:07 | 7:07 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 12.1 | 7:02 | 7:09 |
| 2 | 12.1 | 7:02 | 7:09 |
| 3 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 4 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 5 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 6 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 7 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 8 | 12.1 | 7:03 | 7:09 |
| 9 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 10 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 11 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 12 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 13 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 14 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 15 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 16 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 17 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 18 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 19 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 20 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:09 |
| 21 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:08 |
| 22 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:08 |
| 23 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:08 |
| 24 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:08 |
| 25 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:08 |
| 26 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:07 |
| 27 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:07 |
| 28 | 12.1 | 7:04 | 7:07 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.11 kWh/m² — the sunniest month for solar.
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.07 kWh/m² to a high of 6.11 kWh/m² in February across the year — February's 6.11 kWh/m² sits near the top of that range.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 2 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 3 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 4 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 5 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.1 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Mhalamba
None of Mhalamba's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Mhalamba's rainy season runs October–January, when most of the year's rain falls.
Is February a good time to visit Mhalamba?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is a reasonable time to visit Mhalamba for sightseeing.
What to pack for Mhalamba in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Mhalamba sees daytime highs around 26°C and nights near 21°C. Pack rain gear and sun protection. Worth having: light clothes. About 15 days see rain.
UV index in Mhalamba in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 15 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Mhalamba peaks around March 15 at about 15 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near June 18 at about 10 (extreme).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 13 | 15 | 16 | 15 | 12 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 13 | 13 | 13 | 11 |
| Level | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 13 | Extreme |
| Feb | 15 | Extreme |
| Mar | 16 | Extreme |
| Apr | 15 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 10 | Extreme |
| Jul | 11 | Extreme |
| Aug | 11 | Extreme |
| Sep | 13 | Extreme |
| Oct | 13 | Extreme |
| Nov | 13 | Extreme |
| Dec | 11 | Extreme |
Air quality in Mhalamba in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Mhalamba is worst in January — around 21 µg/m³ PM2.5 (moderate), about 2.1× the cleanest month (November, 10 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 21 | 19 | 13 | 11 | 13 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 15 | 10 | 10 | 13 |
| Level | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Good | Good | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 21 | Moderate |
| Feb | 19 | Moderate |
| Mar | 13 | Moderate |
| Apr | 11 | Good |
| May | 13 | Moderate |
| Jun | 16 | Moderate |
| Jul | 17 | Moderate |
| Aug | 18 | Moderate |
| Sep | 15 | Moderate |
| Oct | 10 | Good |
| Nov | 10 | Good |
| Dec | 13 | Moderate |
Where is Mhalamba?
Mhalamba sits at 2.6°S, 32.0°E, 1,150 m above sea level, in Tanzania. The nearest listed city is Chato, 28 km away.
Topography around Mhalamba
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Mhalamba.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Mhalamba has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 48 m around an average of 1,144 m above sea level; within 16 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 267 m; within 80 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 690 m.
The land around Mhalamba is covered by cropland (43%) and water (28%) within 3 km, water (49%) and cropland (30%) within 16 km, and cropland (38%) and water (31%) within 80 km.
Tanzania travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 3
- Reconsider Travel
- Power plugs
- Type D / G
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 29% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $1,319
- 2025
- Happiness
- 3.9 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Safe drinking water
- 31%
- of population, 2024
- Homicide rate
- 3.7
- per 100k, 2020
- Road deaths
- 31.1
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Lower middle
- World Bank
- English
- Low
- EF EPI 479
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Mhalamba (-2.5812°, 32.0099°, elevation 1,150 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).