Sa'dah weather in February
In February, Sa'dah sees average daytime highs of 24°C and overnight lows near 10°C, with 8 mm of rain across 2.2 wet days and about 11.4 hours of daylight. It is the 9th-warmest and 7th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 23°C in the first days to 24°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 80% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Sa'dah's 4th-clearest and 8th-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Sa'dah's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 24°
- 9th warmest
- Overnight low
- 10°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 8 mm
- 2.2 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 24 min
- 6:37 AM – 6:03 PM
- Cloud cover
- 20%
- 4th clearest
- Wind
- 9 km/h
- 8th windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.09 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 8.9
- out of 10
Sa'dah is human settlement.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 23°C in the first days to 24°C by the end.
A typical February day in Sa'dah reaches about 24°C in the afternoon and slips back to 10°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 21°C and 26°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 2°C warmer than January and about 2°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 25 |
| Avg low (°C) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 23 | 9 |
| 2 | 23 | 9 |
| 3 | 23 | 9 |
| 4 | 23 | 9 |
| 5 | 23 | 9 |
| 6 | 23 | 9 |
| 7 | 23 | 9 |
| 8 | 23 | 10 |
| 9 | 23 | 10 |
| 10 | 23 | 10 |
| 11 | 23 | 10 |
| 12 | 23 | 10 |
| 13 | 24 | 10 |
| 14 | 24 | 10 |
| 15 | 24 | 10 |
| 16 | 24 | 10 |
| 17 | 24 | 10 |
| 18 | 24 | 10 |
| 19 | 24 | 10 |
| 20 | 24 | 10 |
| 21 | 24 | 11 |
| 22 | 24 | 11 |
| 23 | 24 | 11 |
| 24 | 24 | 11 |
| 25 | 24 | 11 |
| 26 | 24 | 11 |
| 27 | 25 | 11 |
| 28 | 25 | 11 |
Sa'dah weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 9th-warmest and 7th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 22° / 8° | 11 | 2.2 | 11.1 | 8.6 |
| Feb | 24° / 10° | 8 | 2.2 | 11.4 | 8.9 |
| Mar | 25° / 12° | 28 | 6.7 | 11.9 | 8.1 |
| Apr | 27° / 15° | 43 | 9.3 | 12.4 | 7.1 |
| May | 29° / 17° | 24 | 5.7 | 12.8 | 6.1 |
| Jun | 31° / 19° | 7 | 1.5 | 13 | 5.4 |
| Jul | 31° / 18° | 31 | 9 | 12.9 | 4.8 |
| Aug | 30° / 18° | 56 | 14.4 | 12.6 | 4.6 |
| Sep | 30° / 17° | 6 | 1.8 | 12.1 | 6.5 |
| Oct | 26° / 14° | 5 | 0.5 | 11.6 | 9.0 |
| Nov | 24° / 11° | 3 | 0.8 | 11.2 | 9.3 |
| Dec | 22° / 8° | 3 | 0.9 | 11 | 9.0 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 80% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 10% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 10%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 90 | 90 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 |
| Cloudier (%) | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 90 | 10 |
| 2 | 90 | 10 |
| 3 | 89 | 11 |
| 4 | 89 | 11 |
| 5 | 89 | 11 |
| 6 | 89 | 11 |
| 7 | 89 | 11 |
| 8 | 89 | 11 |
| 9 | 89 | 11 |
| 10 | 89 | 11 |
| 11 | 89 | 11 |
| 12 | 89 | 11 |
| 13 | 89 | 11 |
| 14 | 90 | 10 |
| 15 | 90 | 10 |
| 16 | 90 | 10 |
| 17 | 90 | 10 |
| 18 | 91 | 9 |
| 19 | 92 | 8 |
| 20 | 92 | 8 |
| 21 | 92 | 8 |
| 22 | 92 | 8 |
| 23 | 92 | 8 |
| 24 | 92 | 8 |
| 25 | 91 | 9 |
| 26 | 91 | 9 |
| 27 | 91 | 9 |
| 28 | 91 | 9 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Sa'dah gets around 8 mm of rain over 2.2 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 8% and peaks near 10% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 8 |
| 2 | 8 |
| 3 | 8 |
| 4 | 8 |
| 5 | 8 |
| 6 | 8 |
| 7 | 8 |
| 8 | 8 |
| 9 | 8 |
| 10 | 9 |
| 11 | 9 |
| 12 | 8 |
| 13 | 8 |
| 14 | 8 |
| 15 | 8 |
| 16 | 8 |
| 17 | 8 |
| 18 | 8 |
| 19 | 8 |
| 20 | 8 |
| 21 | 8 |
| 22 | 8 |
| 23 | 8 |
| 24 | 9 |
| 25 | 9 |
| 26 | 9 |
| 27 | 10 |
| 28 | 10 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 | 99 |
| Comfortable (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Dry (%) | Comfortable (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 100 | 0 |
| 2 | 100 | 0 |
| 3 | 100 | 0 |
| 4 | 100 | 0 |
| 5 | 100 | 0 |
| 6 | 100 | 0 |
| 7 | 100 | 0 |
| 8 | 100 | 0 |
| 9 | 100 | 0 |
| 10 | 100 | 0 |
| 11 | 100 | 0 |
| 12 | 100 | 0 |
| 13 | 100 | 0 |
| 14 | 100 | 0 |
| 15 | 100 | 0 |
| 16 | 100 | 0 |
| 17 | 100 | 0 |
| 18 | 100 | 0 |
| 19 | 100 | 0 |
| 20 | 100 | 0 |
| 21 | 100 | 0 |
| 22 | 99 | 1 |
| 23 | 99 | 1 |
| 24 | 99 | 1 |
| 25 | 99 | 1 |
| 26 | 99 | 1 |
| 27 | 99 | 1 |
| 28 | 99 | 1 |
Wind in February
Winds average 9 km/h in February.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 9 km/h on the calmest days to 9 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 |
| Feels | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm | calm |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 9 | calm |
| 2 | 9 | calm |
| 3 | 9 | calm |
| 4 | 9 | calm |
| 5 | 9 | calm |
| 6 | 9 | calm |
| 7 | 9 | calm |
| 8 | 9 | calm |
| 9 | 9 | calm |
| 10 | 9 | calm |
| 11 | 9 | calm |
| 12 | 9 | calm |
| 13 | 9 | calm |
| 14 | 9 | calm |
| 15 | 9 | calm |
| 16 | 9 | calm |
| 17 | 9 | calm |
| 18 | 9 | calm |
| 19 | 9 | calm |
| 20 | 9 | calm |
| 21 | 9 | calm |
| 22 | 9 | calm |
| 23 | 9 | calm |
| 24 | 9 | calm |
| 25 | 9 | calm |
| 26 | 9 | calm |
| 27 | 9 | calm |
| 28 | 9 | calm |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 24 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 6:41 AM to 6:30 AM, and sunset from 5:56 PM to 6:07 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.2 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 6:41 | 6:41 | 6:41 | 6:40 | 6:40 | 6:40 | 6:40 | 6:39 | 6:39 | 6:39 | 6:38 | 6:38 | 6:37 | 6:37 | 6:37 | 6:36 | 6:36 | 6:35 | 6:35 | 6:34 | 6:34 | 6:33 | 6:33 | 6:32 | 6:31 | 6:31 | 6:30 | 6:30 |
| Sunset (PM) | 5:56 | 5:56 | 5:57 | 5:57 | 5:58 | 5:58 | 5:59 | 5:59 | 6:00 | 6:00 | 6:01 | 6:01 | 6:02 | 6:02 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:03 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:04 | 6:05 | 6:05 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:06 | 6:07 | 6:07 | 6:07 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.2 | 6:41 | 5:56 |
| 2 | 11.3 | 6:41 | 5:56 |
| 3 | 11.3 | 6:41 | 5:57 |
| 4 | 11.3 | 6:40 | 5:57 |
| 5 | 11.3 | 6:40 | 5:58 |
| 6 | 11.3 | 6:40 | 5:58 |
| 7 | 11.3 | 6:40 | 5:59 |
| 8 | 11.3 | 6:39 | 5:59 |
| 9 | 11.4 | 6:39 | 6:00 |
| 10 | 11.4 | 6:39 | 6:00 |
| 11 | 11.4 | 6:38 | 6:01 |
| 12 | 11.4 | 6:38 | 6:01 |
| 13 | 11.4 | 6:37 | 6:02 |
| 14 | 11.4 | 6:37 | 6:02 |
| 15 | 11.4 | 6:37 | 6:03 |
| 16 | 11.4 | 6:36 | 6:03 |
| 17 | 11.5 | 6:36 | 6:03 |
| 18 | 11.5 | 6:35 | 6:04 |
| 19 | 11.5 | 6:35 | 6:04 |
| 20 | 11.5 | 6:34 | 6:04 |
| 21 | 11.5 | 6:34 | 6:05 |
| 22 | 11.5 | 6:33 | 6:05 |
| 23 | 11.5 | 6:33 | 6:06 |
| 24 | 11.6 | 6:32 | 6:06 |
| 25 | 11.6 | 6:31 | 6:06 |
| 26 | 11.6 | 6:31 | 6:07 |
| 27 | 11.6 | 6:30 | 6:07 |
| 28 | 11.6 | 6:30 | 6:07 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.09 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.51 kWh/m² to a high of 7 kWh/m² in May across the year — February's 6.09 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 3 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 4 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 5 | 5.8 | Bright |
| 6 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 7 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 8 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 9 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 10 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 11 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 12 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.4 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Sa'dah
None of Sa'dah's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Sa'dah sees seasonal dust haze (May–September), heaviest in July.
Is February a good time to visit Sa'dah?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit Sa'dah for general sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Sa'dah in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Sa'dah sees daytime highs around 24°C and nights near 10°C. Pack sun protection. Worth having: light clothes.
UV index in Sa'dah in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 13 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Sa'dah peaks around April 13 at about 14 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 14 at about 8 (very high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 10 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 10 | 12 | 9 | 8 |
| Level | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 10 | Very high |
| Feb | 13 | Extreme |
| Mar | 13 | Extreme |
| Apr | 14 | Extreme |
| May | 12 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 11 | Extreme |
| Aug | 12 | Extreme |
| Sep | 10 | Extreme |
| Oct | 12 | Extreme |
| Nov | 9 | Very high |
| Dec | 8 | Very high |
Air quality in Sa'dah in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Sa'dah is worst in July — around 52 µg/m³ PM2.5 (poor), about 2.5× the cleanest month (November, 21 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 29 | 39 | 38 | 40 | 38 | 45 | 52 | 42 | 32 | 22 | 21 | 22 |
| Level | Moderate | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Poor | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 29 | Moderate |
| Feb | 39 | Poor |
| Mar | 38 | Poor |
| Apr | 40 | Poor |
| May | 38 | Poor |
| Jun | 45 | Poor |
| Jul | 52 | Poor |
| Aug | 42 | Poor |
| Sep | 32 | Moderate |
| Oct | 22 | Moderate |
| Nov | 21 | Moderate |
| Dec | 22 | Moderate |
Where is Sa'dah?
Sa'dah sits at 16.9°N, 43.8°E, 1,876 m above sea level, in Yemen. The nearest listed city is Najran, 73 km away.
Topography around Sa'dah
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Sa'dah.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Sa'dah has significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 253 m around an average of 1,877 m above sea level; within 16 km, large variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 665 m; within 80 km, extreme variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 2,766 m.
The land around Sa'dah is covered by bare terrain (61%) and cropland (32%) within 3 km, bare terrain (77%) within 16 km, and bare terrain (73%) within 80 km.
Yemen travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type A / D / G
- 240 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 7% of US
- price level, 2013
- GDP per capita
- $634
- 2018
- Happiness
- 3.5 / 10
- World Happiness, 2025
- Homicide rate
- 5.8
- per 100k, 2013
- Road deaths
- 29.4
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 402
- Religion
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Sa'dah (16.9402°, 43.7639°, elevation 1,876 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).