Kuraymah weather in February
In February, Kuraymah sees average daytime highs of 29°C and overnight lows near 15°C, with 0 mm of rain across 0 wet days and about 11.4 hours of daylight. It is the 10th-warmest and 7th-wettest month of the year here.
Highs climb over the month, from about 28°C in the first days to 31°C by the end. The sky is clear or mostly clear about 87% of the time in February, and the air most often feels dry.
Daylight stretches from about 11 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. Set against the rest of the year, February is Kuraymah's 5th-clearest and 1st-windiest month. For the whole year in context, see Kuraymah's year-round climate.
- Daytime high
- 29°
- 10th warmest
- Overnight low
- 15°
- 3rd coldest
- Rainfall
- 0 mm
- 0 wet days
- Daylight
- 11 h 24 min
- 7:26 AM – 6:48 PM
- Cloud cover
- 12%
- 5th clearest
- Wind
- 19 km/h
- 1st windiest
- Solar energy
- 6.29 kWh/m²
- Travel score
- 7.5
- out of 10
Kuraymah is human settlement in Sudan.
Air quality: WHO Ambient Air Quality Database. Density & description: Wikidata (CC0), GeoNames.
Temperature in February
Highs climb over the month, from about 28°C in the first days to 31°C by the end.
A typical February day in Kuraymah reaches about 29°C in the afternoon and slips back to 15°C overnight — a 14°C spread between the day's warmth and the night's chill. On most days the high lands between 24°C and 35°C. Set against its neighbours, February runs about 3°C warmer than January and about 4°C cooler than March.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg high (°C) | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Avg low (°C) | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 17 | 17 |
| Avg high (°C) | Avg low (°C) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 28 | 14 |
| 2 | 28 | 14 |
| 3 | 28 | 14 |
| 4 | 28 | 14 |
| 5 | 28 | 14 |
| 6 | 28 | 14 |
| 7 | 28 | 14 |
| 8 | 28 | 14 |
| 9 | 28 | 14 |
| 10 | 28 | 15 |
| 11 | 29 | 15 |
| 12 | 29 | 15 |
| 13 | 29 | 15 |
| 14 | 29 | 15 |
| 15 | 29 | 15 |
| 16 | 29 | 15 |
| 17 | 29 | 15 |
| 18 | 30 | 15 |
| 19 | 30 | 15 |
| 20 | 30 | 16 |
| 21 | 30 | 16 |
| 22 | 30 | 16 |
| 23 | 30 | 16 |
| 24 | 31 | 16 |
| 25 | 31 | 16 |
| 26 | 31 | 17 |
| 27 | 31 | 17 |
| 28 | 31 | 17 |
How February really feels in Kuraymah
Once humidity and wind are folded in, February averages 0 days that feel above 32°C and 0 that feel at or below 0°C — the comfort signal a plain temperature reading hides.
February sits comfortably in between — no days that feel dangerously hot or drop to a hard freeze once humidity and wind are folded in.
Kuraymah weather by month
How February compares with the rest of the year at a glance. February is the 10th-warmest and 7th-wettest month here — the current month is highlighted below.
| Month | High / Low (°C) | Rainfall (mm) | Wet days | Daylight (hours) | Travel score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan | 27° / 13° | 0 | 0 | 11 | 9.0 |
| Feb | 29° / 15° | 0 | 0 | 11.4 | 7.5 |
| Mar | 33° / 19° | 0 | 0 | 11.9 | 4.7 |
| Apr | 38° / 23° | 0 | 0 | 12.4 | 1.6 |
| May | 41° / 27° | 0 | 0.1 | 12.9 | 0.0 |
| Jun | 42° / 28° | 0 | 0 | 13.1 | 0.0 |
| Jul | 41° / 28° | 3 | 0.9 | 13 | 0.0 |
| Aug | 41° / 29° | 3 | 0.8 | 12.6 | 0.0 |
| Sep | 41° / 28° | 1 | 0.2 | 12.1 | 0.0 |
| Oct | 38° / 25° | 0 | 0.1 | 11.6 | 1.3 |
| Nov | 32° / 19° | 0 | 0 | 11.1 | 5.5 |
| Dec | 28° / 15° | 0 | 0 | 10.9 | 8.4 |
Cloud cover in February
The sky is clear or mostly clear about 87% of the time in February.
Beyond those clear spells, partly cloudy skies cover about 6% of February, with mostly cloudy or overcast conditions the remaining 7%.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clearer (%) | 94 | 94 | 94 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 95 | 95 |
| Cloudier (%) | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 |
| Clearer (%) | Cloudier (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 94 | 6 |
| 2 | 94 | 6 |
| 3 | 94 | 6 |
| 4 | 93 | 7 |
| 5 | 93 | 7 |
| 6 | 93 | 7 |
| 7 | 93 | 7 |
| 8 | 93 | 7 |
| 9 | 93 | 7 |
| 10 | 93 | 7 |
| 11 | 93 | 7 |
| 12 | 93 | 7 |
| 13 | 93 | 7 |
| 14 | 93 | 7 |
| 15 | 93 | 7 |
| 16 | 92 | 8 |
| 17 | 92 | 8 |
| 18 | 93 | 7 |
| 19 | 93 | 7 |
| 20 | 94 | 6 |
| 21 | 94 | 6 |
| 22 | 94 | 6 |
| 23 | 94 | 6 |
| 24 | 94 | 6 |
| 25 | 94 | 6 |
| 26 | 94 | 6 |
| 27 | 95 | 5 |
| 28 | 95 | 5 |
Chance of precipitation in February
Kuraymah gets around 0 mm of rain over 0 wet days in February. The line is the day-by-day chance of measurable precipitation.
Day to day, the chance of measurable rain averages around 0% and peaks near 0% on the wettest days.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain chance (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Rain chance (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 0 |
| 3 | 0 |
| 4 | 0 |
| 5 | 0 |
| 6 | 0 |
| 7 | 0 |
| 8 | 0 |
| 9 | 0 |
| 10 | 0 |
| 11 | 0 |
| 12 | 0 |
| 13 | 0 |
| 14 | 0 |
| 15 | 0 |
| 16 | 0 |
| 17 | 0 |
| 18 | 0 |
| 19 | 0 |
| 20 | 0 |
| 21 | 0 |
| 22 | 0 |
| 23 | 0 |
| 24 | 0 |
| 25 | 0 |
| 26 | 0 |
| 27 | 0 |
| 28 | 0 |
Humidity in February
Most of February feels dry — the stacked bands show each day's mix of comfort levels, read off the dew point.
By dew point, February lands in the dry band about 100% of days. It rarely turns muggy — the humid and sticky bands barely register.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| Dry (%) | |
|---|---|
| 1 | 100 |
| 2 | 100 |
| 3 | 100 |
| 4 | 100 |
| 5 | 100 |
| 6 | 100 |
| 7 | 100 |
| 8 | 100 |
| 9 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 |
| 11 | 100 |
| 12 | 100 |
| 13 | 100 |
| 14 | 100 |
| 15 | 100 |
| 16 | 100 |
| 17 | 100 |
| 18 | 100 |
| 19 | 100 |
| 20 | 100 |
| 21 | 100 |
| 22 | 100 |
| 23 | 100 |
| 24 | 100 |
| 25 | 100 |
| 26 | 100 |
| 27 | 100 |
| 28 | 100 |
Wind in February
Winds average 19 km/h in February, the windiest month of the year.
Across February, daily wind ranges from about 18 km/h on the calmest days to 19 km/h at its breeziest. It stays fairly steady from day to day.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind speed (km/h) | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 |
| Feels | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze | light breeze |
| Wind speed (km/h) | Feels | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 18 | light breeze |
| 2 | 18 | light breeze |
| 3 | 18 | light breeze |
| 4 | 18 | light breeze |
| 5 | 18 | light breeze |
| 6 | 18 | light breeze |
| 7 | 18 | light breeze |
| 8 | 18 | light breeze |
| 9 | 18 | light breeze |
| 10 | 18 | light breeze |
| 11 | 18 | light breeze |
| 12 | 18 | light breeze |
| 13 | 19 | light breeze |
| 14 | 19 | light breeze |
| 15 | 19 | light breeze |
| 16 | 19 | light breeze |
| 17 | 19 | light breeze |
| 18 | 19 | light breeze |
| 19 | 19 | light breeze |
| 20 | 19 | light breeze |
| 21 | 19 | light breeze |
| 22 | 19 | light breeze |
| 23 | 19 | light breeze |
| 24 | 19 | light breeze |
| 25 | 19 | light breeze |
| 26 | 19 | light breeze |
| 27 | 19 | light breeze |
| 28 | 19 | light breeze |
Sunrise & sunset in February
Daylight runs from about 11 h 12 min at the start of February to 11 h 36 min by month's end. The lit band spans sunrise to sunset each day.
Days grow by about 24 minutes over February. Sunrise moves from 7:31 AM to 7:18 AM, and sunset from 6:41 PM to 6:54 PM.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Daylight (h) | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.2 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.3 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11.6 | 11.6 | 11.6 |
| Sunrise (AM) | 7:31 | 7:31 | 7:30 | 7:30 | 7:30 | 7:30 | 7:29 | 7:29 | 7:29 | 7:28 | 7:28 | 7:27 | 7:27 | 7:26 | 7:26 | 7:25 | 7:25 | 7:24 | 7:24 | 7:23 | 7:23 | 7:22 | 7:22 | 7:21 | 7:20 | 7:20 | 7:19 | 7:18 |
| Sunset (PM) | 6:41 | 6:42 | 6:42 | 6:43 | 6:43 | 6:44 | 6:45 | 6:45 | 6:46 | 6:46 | 6:47 | 6:47 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:48 | 6:49 | 6:49 | 6:50 | 6:50 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:51 | 6:52 | 6:52 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:53 | 6:54 |
| Daylight (h) | Sunrise (AM) | Sunset (PM) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11.2 | 7:31 | 6:41 |
| 2 | 11.2 | 7:31 | 6:42 |
| 3 | 11.2 | 7:30 | 6:42 |
| 4 | 11.2 | 7:30 | 6:43 |
| 5 | 11.2 | 7:30 | 6:43 |
| 6 | 11.2 | 7:30 | 6:44 |
| 7 | 11.3 | 7:29 | 6:45 |
| 8 | 11.3 | 7:29 | 6:45 |
| 9 | 11.3 | 7:29 | 6:46 |
| 10 | 11.3 | 7:28 | 6:46 |
| 11 | 11.3 | 7:28 | 6:47 |
| 12 | 11.3 | 7:27 | 6:47 |
| 13 | 11.3 | 7:27 | 6:48 |
| 14 | 11.4 | 7:26 | 6:48 |
| 15 | 11.4 | 7:26 | 6:48 |
| 16 | 11.4 | 7:25 | 6:49 |
| 17 | 11.4 | 7:25 | 6:49 |
| 18 | 11.4 | 7:24 | 6:50 |
| 19 | 11.4 | 7:24 | 6:50 |
| 20 | 11.5 | 7:23 | 6:51 |
| 21 | 11.5 | 7:23 | 6:51 |
| 22 | 11.5 | 7:22 | 6:51 |
| 23 | 11.5 | 7:22 | 6:52 |
| 24 | 11.5 | 7:21 | 6:52 |
| 25 | 11.5 | 7:20 | 6:53 |
| 26 | 11.6 | 7:20 | 6:53 |
| 27 | 11.6 | 7:19 | 6:53 |
| 28 | 11.6 | 7:18 | 6:54 |
Solar energy in February
Average shortwave solar energy reaching the ground each day in February, about 6.29 kWh/m².
For context, solar energy here swings from a low near 5.29 kWh/m² to a high of 7.77 kWh/m² in April across the year — February's 6.29 kWh/m² falls in the middle.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | 5.9 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 6.7 | 6.7 |
| Level | Bright | Bright | Bright | Bright | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense | Intense |
| Solar energy (kWh/m²) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 2 | 5.9 | Bright |
| 3 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 4 | 6.0 | Bright |
| 5 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 6 | 6.0 | Intense |
| 7 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 8 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 9 | 6.1 | Intense |
| 10 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 11 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 12 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 13 | 6.2 | Intense |
| 14 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 15 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 16 | 6.3 | Intense |
| 17 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 18 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 19 | 6.4 | Intense |
| 20 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 21 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 22 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 23 | 6.5 | Intense |
| 24 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 25 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 26 | 6.6 | Intense |
| 27 | 6.7 | Intense |
| 28 | 6.7 | Intense |
Hazard calendar for Kuraymah
None of Kuraymah's seasonal hazards are active in February. The full-year calendar below shows when the rainy season, cyclone risk and dust haze do peak.
Kuraymah sees seasonal dust haze (March–September), heaviest in June.
Is February a good time to visit Kuraymah?
Our two travel scores rate February for general sightseeing and for beach or pool weather — 0 (poor) to 10 (ideal).
February is one of the better times to visit Kuraymah for general sightseeing. The water and warmth also suit a beach or pool day.
What to pack for Kuraymah in February
From February's temperature range, rain chance, sun and wind — what's worth putting in the bag.
In February, Kuraymah sees daytime highs around 29°C and nights near 15°C. Pack light clothes and sun protection.
UV index in Kuraymah in February
Clear-sky midday UV in February peaks around 10 (very high — sun protection essential). The full-year curve, shaded by WHO exposure level, is below.
Under clear skies, the midday UV index in Kuraymah peaks around June 12 at about 11 (extreme) — sunscreen, a hat and midday shade are essential. It bottoms out near December 14 at about 7 (high).
The index reaches 3 or more — the level where the WHO recommends sun protection — every month of the year.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UV index (midday) | 8 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 7 | 7 |
| Level | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Extreme | Very high | Very high | Extreme | Very high | Very high | High |
| UV index (midday) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 8 | Very high |
| Feb | 10 | Very high |
| Mar | 11 | Extreme |
| Apr | 11 | Extreme |
| May | 11 | Extreme |
| Jun | 11 | Extreme |
| Jul | 9 | Very high |
| Aug | 10 | Very high |
| Sep | 11 | Extreme |
| Oct | 10 | Very high |
| Nov | 7 | Very high |
| Dec | 7 | High |
Air quality in Kuraymah in February
Average fine-particle pollution (PM2.5) through the year — so you can see where February falls, not just the annual average.
Air quality in Kuraymah is worst in March — around 84 µg/m³ PM2.5 (unhealthy), about 1.9× the cleanest month (July, 44 µg/m³).
Modeled monthly averages (CAMS reanalysis, 2015–2024).
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | 73 | 74 | 84 | 71 | 70 | 66 | 44 | 51 | 63 | 68 | 59 | 68 |
| Level | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Poor | Poor | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy | Unhealthy |
| PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Level | |
|---|---|---|
| Jan | 73 | Unhealthy |
| Feb | 74 | Unhealthy |
| Mar | 84 | Unhealthy |
| Apr | 71 | Unhealthy |
| May | 70 | Unhealthy |
| Jun | 66 | Unhealthy |
| Jul | 44 | Poor |
| Aug | 51 | Poor |
| Sep | 63 | Unhealthy |
| Oct | 68 | Unhealthy |
| Nov | 59 | Unhealthy |
| Dec | 68 | Unhealthy |
Where is Kuraymah?
Kuraymah sits at 18.6°N, 31.9°E, 255 m above sea level, in Sudan. The nearest listed city is Dongola, 161 km away.
Topography around Kuraymah
How much the land rises and falls, and what covers it, within 3, 16 and 80 km of Kuraymah.
Within 3 km, the terrain around Kuraymah has only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 102 m around an average of 258 m above sea level; within 16 km, only modest variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 126 m; within 80 km, significant variations in elevation — a maximum elevation change of 523 m.
The land around Kuraymah is covered by bare terrain (40%) and trees (22%) within 3 km, bare terrain (86%) within 16 km, and bare terrain (95%) within 80 km.
Sudan travel facts
- Travel advisory
- Level 4
- Do Not Travel
- Power plugs
- Type C / D / F / G
- 230 V · 50 Hz
- Prices
- ≈ 215% of US
- price level, 2025
- GDP per capita
- $1,165
- 2025
- Happiness
- 4.1 / 10
- World Happiness, 2017
- Homicide rate
- 5.1
- per 100k, 2008
- Road deaths
- 26.8
- per 100k/yr, 2019
- Income group
- Low
- World Bank
- English
- Very low
- EF EPI 421
Sources: World Bank, US State Department, World Happiness Report, WHO/UNICEF, EF EPI, CIA World Factbook.
Data sources
Temperature, precipitation, cloud, humidity, wind and solar figures are a 1991–2020 climatology for Kuraymah (18.55°, 31.85°, elevation 255 m), computed from hourly ERA5 reanalysis — contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information. Sun figures are astronomical calculations, not observations. City data © GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Map outlines from Natural Earth (public domain); interactive map © Google. UV index is derived from CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) clear-sky UV data — contains modified Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service information. Monthly air-quality (PM2.5) seasonality is from the CAMS EAC4 reanalysis (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service), scaled to the WHO annual mean where available. Topography is sampled from the Copernicus DEM GLO-90 elevation model (© ESA/Airbus) and ESA WorldCover 2021 land cover (CC BY 4.0).